Third International Conference on

Advances in Control and Optimization of Dynamical Systems

March 13-15, 2014. Kanpur, India

Motion Compensation of Airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar

Dushyant Kaliyari*. Amit Shukla**. Y. S. Rao*. Hari B. Hablani*

*Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400076
**Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, 380015

Abstract: This paper addresses the problem of the compensation of the motion errors in an airborne
synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The motion errors are caused by the sensor’s unintended translational and
rotational motion. The motion errors cause amplitude and phase modulation of the echo, thus making the
image defocused and geometrically distorted. A method of estimating the motion error based on the
movement of the line-of-sight unit vector is proposed. The range-Doppler algorithm is used for processing
the SAR raw data. A motion compensation algorithm is also proposed and is applied after the range
compression to compensate for the effective range error in single-step. Effectiveness of the proposed
algorithm is evaluated using the experimental data acquired by Disaster Management SAR system
developed in Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, India.
Keywords: SAR, line-of-sight, range-Doppler, range compression, translational motion error, rotational
motion error.

estimation of the motion errors. We discuss the motion
1. INTRODUCTION
compensation strategy in section IV and finally, the results
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a remote sensing system obtained by SAR data are given in section V.
used to obtain high-resolution images of the Earth. Processing
2. NEED OF MOTION COMPENSATION
of the SAR raw data acquired by the spaceborne and airborne
platforms are well established. But airborne SAR data All standard focusing techniques of SAR raw data assume a
processing requires motion error correction for the generation linear motion of the carrier aircraft maintaining a fixed
of focused amplitude images. All standard SAR raw data antenna beam pointing. However, these conditions are seldom
processing techniques assume a uniform linear motion of the met in the real airborne SAR system. In reality, the sensor
aircraft and a fixed antenna beam pointing. However, these undergoes both translational and rotational motions because
conditions are seldom met in an airborne SAR system. of the atmospheric turbulence, high altitude winds, or other
reasons.
The presence of atmospheric turbulence or high altitude winds
introduce trajectory deviations from the nominal straight The motion errors of the antenna phase center (APC) of a
flight path, as well as attitude and forward velocity variations. SAR system cause amplitude and phase modulation of the
In the SAR terminology, the raw data acquired in these echo and thus degrade the quality of the SAR images. The
conditions are said to be affected by the motion errors. These translational motion error of the APC causes:
motion errors are considered to be space-invariant in this
1) Unequal spatial sampling of the acquired SAR raw data,
paper. Forward velocity variations may be accounted for via
and
the standard re-sampling procedures. Trajectory deviations
and attitude variations are examined in the paper. 2) Target-to-sensor range error, which corresponds to the
phase errors in the SAR signal phase history.
To compensate for the motion errors, flight information must
be available at the raw data processing stage. The flight Fig. 1 shows the effects of the translational motion error. 𝑶𝒐
information in terms of latitude, longitude, altitude, velocity, and 𝑶𝒂 are the positions of the antenna phase centre (APC) in
roll, pitch and yaw is provided by the integrated GPS-INS the nominal and real trajectories at any instant of time 𝑡,
system (IGIS) using an on-board Kalman filter. respectively. 𝑑 is the displacement vector, 𝑻 represents a
Motion compensation techniques that accounted for the generic scene scatterer (target), 𝑟𝑚0 and 𝑟𝑚𝑎 are the target-to-
motion errors during the SAR processing have been proposed sensor distances with respect to the nominal and real
in the past years by the researchers [Kirk (1975), Moreira trajectories, respectively. ECEF (Earth-Centered-Earth-Fixed)
(1994), Carrara et. al (1995) and Fornaro (1999)]. In this frame of reference is considered, X-axis being the direction of
paper, the effect of motion errors is analyzed by evaluating the flight (nominal trajectory).
the change in the spatial position of the boresight LOS unit- We have the following expression for 𝑟𝑚0 and 𝑟𝑚𝑎 :
vector caused by the translational and rotational motion
errors. 𝑟𝑚𝑎 = 𝑟𝑚 0 + 𝛿𝑟 (1)

The paper is organized as follows. In section II, we present The term 𝛿𝑟 is the target-to-sensor range error due to the
the necessity of the motion compensation techniques. In translational motion error of the APC which needs to be
section III, we elucidate the method proposed for the determined.

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Z It is known that the essential information of the scatterer lies

Nominal Trajectory
𝑂𝑎
Y X
𝑑 Real Trajectory
𝑂0
𝜗 𝑟𝑚𝑎
𝑟𝑚 0
𝑇 motion and range error caused by the translational motion of
Fig. 1. Effect of translational motion error
Let us consider Fig. 2 which shows the effect of rotation of
the platform on radar footprint. The three-axis rotation of the
sensor’s platform contributes to the antenna beam pointing
error. Of the three rotational motion components, aircraft roll
causes antenna beam pointing variations, while pitch and yaw
contribute to the squinting of the antenna beam.
in the phase of the received echo [Cumming et. al (2005)].
These motion errors modulate the phase history of the SAR
echo. If these motion errors are not accounted for the
compensation, the image thus obtained will be defocused and
geometrically distorted. Therefore, the inclusion of motion
compensation technique along with SAR raw data processing
algorithm is essential.
3. MOTION ERROR ESTIMATION ALGORITHM
Motion error encompasses the squint angle by the rotational
the sensor platform. These errors should be determined
correctly in order to enhance the image quality via
compensation. The squint angle is determined via dot product
of the unit vectors. The determination of the range error due to
translational motion error involves estimation of the target
location via ray-sphere intersection formulation. The
determination of the motion errors is explained below:
3.1 Determination of Squint Angle due to Rotational Motion
Error

From Fig. 3, we have the following expression for the line-of-

Z sight (LOS) unit vector in the bore-sight direction 𝜂:
Nominal
Y X 𝜂 = 0 − sin 𝜗 𝑇
Actual − cos 𝜗 (2)
𝜙 (𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙)
Z

𝜃 𝜓 X
Y
𝜙

ϑ
Z Δ𝑟𝜙
𝜂𝜓𝜃
Y X
𝛿𝑠𝑞
𝜂𝜙
𝜃 (𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ)
𝜂
Fig. 3. Effects of the Euler angles on the LOS unit vector

Z
Y 𝜓 (𝑦𝑎𝑤)
Fig. 2. Effect of rotational motion error
The term 𝜗 is the look angle for SAR, and it depends on the
target-to-sensor range (R) and altitude (h) of the aircraft. The
look angle can be determined as shown below:
X 𝜗 = cos−1 ℎ/𝑅 (3)
Roll angle 𝜙 alters the look angle as shown in Fig. 2. The
direction cosine matrix (DCM) for the rotation about the x-
axis, considering the anti-clockwise rotation as positive, is
given as:
1 0 0
𝑇𝑥 = 0 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜙 (4)
0 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙
When the aircraft undergoes rolling motion, the LOS unit
vector 𝜂 rotates too, and attains a new spatial position 𝜂𝜙
given by the following relationship:

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𝜂𝜙 = 𝑇𝑥 × 𝜂 (5) Since 𝜂 and 𝜂𝜓𝜃 are the unit vectors, 𝜂 = 𝜂𝜓𝜃 = 1.

After simplification, the following expression is obtained: Therefore, the squint angle due to rotational motion error is
given as:
𝑇
𝜂𝜙 = 0 − sin 𝜗 − 𝜙 − cos 𝜗 − 𝜙 (6)
𝛿𝑠𝑞 = cos−1 𝜂 ⋅ 𝜂𝜓𝜃 (15)
Thus, rolling of the aircraft does not contribute to the
squinting of the antenna beam, though it alters the look angle. The antenna beam can be rotated either clockwise or
Fig. 3 shows that the look angle changes by an angle Δrϕ anticlockwise due to the rotational motion error of the
platform. The direction of rotation of the antenna beam can be
which is expressed in terms of roll angle as follows:
determined as shown below:
Δ𝑟𝜙 = −𝜙 (7)
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝛿𝑠𝑞 = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂 ⋅ 𝜂𝜓𝜃 ⋅ 𝑖 (16)
The negative sign indicates that for an anti-clockwise roll, the
LOS unit vector rotates clockwise. The change in look angle Eq. (16) provides the direction of the rotation of the antenna
changes the target-to-sensor range as shown in (3). Effect of beam. Anti-clockwise rotation is given by the value 1,
the roll on look angle will be discussed in section 3.2. whereas −1 signifies the clockwise rotation of the antenna
beam. Hence, the squint angle due to rotational motion error
Pitch (𝜃) and yaw (𝜓) of the sensor carrier introduces squint can be rewritten as shown below:
in the antenna beam [Cumming et. al (2005)]. The DCM for
the rotation about the y-axis and z-axis are given as shown 𝛿𝑠𝑞 = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝛿𝑠𝑞 ) × cos−1 𝜂 ⋅ 𝜂𝜓𝜃 (17)
below:
cos 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃 3.2 Determination of Range Error due to Translational
𝑇𝑦 = 0 1 0 (8) Motion Error
− sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 Fig. 4 shows the consequences of the translational motion
cos 𝜓 − sin 𝜓 0 error and the roll angle on the target-to-sensor range. 𝑻′ and 𝑻
𝑇𝑧 = sin 𝜓 cos 𝜓 0 (9) represent a generic scene scatterer located in the zero-Doppler
0 0 1 plane with and without consideration of the roll angle error,
The rotational motion of the aircraft rotates the LOS unit respectively. 𝑟𝑚′ 0 and 𝑟𝑚 0 are the ranges of closest approach
vector. Consider the aircraft undergoes both pitching and with respect to the nominal trajectory with and without roll
′
yawing motion, thus introducing a squint in the antenna beam. angle error, respectively. Similarly, 𝑟𝑚𝑎 and 𝑟𝑚𝑎 are the
The new spatial position of the boresight LOS unit-vector ranges of closest approach with respect to the real trajectory
after taking pitch and yaw of the aircraft into consideration is with and without roll angle error, respectively.
given as: Z
𝜂𝜓𝜃 = 𝑇𝑧 × 𝑇𝑦 × 𝜂 (10)
𝜙 X
𝑶𝒂
Y
Assuming that the rotational motion errors are small angles,
the following expression is obtained for the new displaced 𝑶𝟎 𝑟𝑚𝑎
LOS unit vector: ′
𝑟𝑚𝑎
𝜓. sin 𝜗 − 𝜃. cos 𝜗 𝜗
𝜂𝜓𝜃 = − sin 𝜗 − 𝜃. 𝜓. cos 𝜗 (11) 𝑟𝑚 0
− cos 𝜗 𝑟𝑚′ 0
Δ𝑟𝜙
Since the angles are small, y-component of the new displaced
LOS unit vector 𝜂𝜓𝜃 can be further simplified and rewritten as
shown below: 𝑻′
𝑻
𝜂𝜓𝜃 . 𝑗 = − sin 𝜗 (12)
Thus, (11) is reduced to, Fig. 4. Range error estimation due to translational motion
𝜓. sin 𝜗 − 𝜃. cos 𝜗 error and rolling of the aircraft
𝜂𝜓𝜃 = − sin 𝜗 (13)
− cos 𝜗
The target location 𝑻 can be determined via ray-sphere
Eq. (2) and (13) show that the antenna beam is shifted in x- intersection formulation as shown below:
direction. As a result, a squint angle is introduced due to the
pitching and yawing of the sensor platform. 𝑻 = 𝑶𝟎 + 𝑟𝑚0 ⋅ 𝜂 (18)
Referring to Fig. 3, the squint angle can be determined by where the boresight LOS unit vector 𝜂 is given in (2). Thus,
utilizing the vector dot product of the two LOS unit vectors 𝜂 the distance between the target location 𝑻 and the actual
and 𝜂𝜓𝜃 . position of the APC 𝑂𝑎 is determined as follows:
𝜂 ⋅ 𝜂𝜓𝜃 = 𝜂 𝜂𝜓𝜃 cos 𝛿𝑠𝑞 (14)
𝑟𝑚𝑎 = 𝑻 − 𝑶𝒂 (19)

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Eq. (19) gives the target-to-sensor range with respect to the Z

real trajectory. Thus, the change in the range can be easily
determined by the difference of 𝑟𝑚0 and 𝑟𝑚𝑎 . X
Y
But as discussed in the previous section, rolling of the aircraft
alters the look angle, which consequently changes the range. 𝑅
Roll angle shifts the unit vector 𝜂 by an angle 𝛥𝑟𝜙 . Range due 𝜗 𝛽
to the rolling of the sensor platform is given as:
𝑟𝑚 0
𝑅𝑛
𝑟𝑚′ 0 = ℎ/ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜗 − 𝜙 (20)
𝑟𝑚𝑎
Change in the spatial position of the unit vector will also 𝑥
change the target location. The new target location will be 𝑥0
given as:

𝑻′ = 𝑶𝟎 + 𝑟𝑚0
′
⋅ 𝜂𝜙 (21) Fig. 5. Effective range error due to motion errors
(translational and rotational motion errors)
where, the new shifted unit vector 𝜂𝜙 is defined in (6).
Therefore, the range of the target for the actual APC position
is given as: The actual range 𝑅 to the target located at the position 𝑥 is
given as:
′
𝑟𝑚𝑎 = 𝑻′ − 𝑶𝒂 (22)
𝑅= 2 + 𝑥−𝑥
𝑟𝑚𝑎 2 (27)
0
Eq. (22) provides the range considering the translational
motion error and the rolling of the sensor platform. Thus, the Thus, the effective range error 𝛥𝑅 is determined as follows:
range error is given as:
𝛥𝑅 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑛 (28)
′ ′
𝛿𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑎 − 𝑟𝑚0 (23)
After simplification, following expression for the effective
3.3 Determination of Effective Range Error due to Motion range error is obtained:
Error
𝛿𝑟 2
The translational motion and rotational motion error of the 𝛥𝑅 = 𝑟𝑚𝑜 1+ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽 − 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽 (29)
𝑟𝑚𝑜
APC, both contribute to the range error. The translational
motion error of the sensor and the rolling of the aircraft
For further simplification, refer to Fig. 6 which gives,
directly introduce the range error. Whereas pitching and
yawing of the aircraft introduces squint to the antenna beam, 𝛥𝑅 = 𝛿𝑟 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 (30)
indirectly altering the range. Thus, the effective range error
includes the range error introduced by the translational motion Eq. (30) gives the effective range error due to the translational
error and the rotational motion error. and rotational motion errors. The phase error associated with
the effective range error 𝛥𝑅 is given as [Fornaro et. al
Consider Fig. 5. 𝑥0 represents the location of the target in (2005)]:
zero-Doppler plane while 𝑥 represents the shifted target
location due to the squint angle 𝛽. 𝑅 and 𝑅𝑛 represent the 𝛥𝜙 =
4𝜋
𝛥𝑅 (31)
range to the target location from the real and nominal 𝜆

trajectories, respectively.
This phase error needs to be compensated effectively so as to
The nominal range 𝑅𝑛 is given as: improve the SAR image quality. The motion compensation
algorithm is explained in the next section.
2 + 𝑥−𝑥
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑟𝑚𝑜 2 (24)
0 4. MOTION COMPENSATION ALGORITHM
From the Fig. 5, we have The phase error is compensated in the frequency domain. The
proposed method compensates the phase error, subsequent to
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 /𝑟𝑚0 (25) the range compression, in a single step. Fig. 7 shows the block
diagram of the motion compensation procedure integrated
which gives,
with the range-Doppler SAR data processing algorithm.
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑟𝑚0 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 (26)
The range-Doppler algorithm focuses the SAR data by means
The squint angle 𝛽 includes the inherent squint angle 𝜃𝑠𝑞 and of pulse compression [Franceschetti et. al (1999) and Zhao et.
the squint angle introduced due to the pitching and yawing of al (2011)]. Pulse compression refers to the technique of
compressing a long, phase-encoded signal by means of a
the platform 𝛿𝑠𝑞 .

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matched filter. Pulse compression is done in order to achieve 5. RESULTS

a better resolution [Mahafza (2000)].
This section presents the experimental results regarding the
processing procedure discussed in Section 4. All the results
are carried out by processing the real time raw data acquired
by Disaster Management SAR (DMSAR) system in FRS – 2
(Fine Resolution Stripmap) mode for one aperture time (12.37
seconds). It was developed at Space Applications Centre,
ISRO, Ahmedabad, India. Sensor parameters are shown in
Table 1 and the mode parameters are displayed in Table 2.

Table 1. DMSAR sensor parameters

Nominal Altitude 8000 m

Nominal Velocity 120 m/s

Chirp Duration 20 𝜇s

Wavelength 0.0561 m

Pulse Repetition Frequency 450 Hz

Fig. 6. 3-d projections of the range error
Range Delay 200.19 𝜇s

Synthetic Aperture Length 1738 m

RAW Data

Range Compression Table 2. FRS-2 mode parameters

Sampling Frequency 41.66 MHz

Azimuth FFT Chirp Bandwidth 37.5 MHz

4𝜋 Range Samples 1500

Δ𝜙 = Δ𝑅
𝜆
Azimuth Samples 5568
Azimuth Compression
0
Roll (deg)

-0.1
Azimuth IFFT -0.2
-0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (s)
SLC Image 0.1
Pitch (deg)

0.05
0
Fig. 7. Motion compensation algorithm -0.05
-0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (s)
Range compression is done via matched filtering of the echo 0
Yaw (deg)

on each range line. The time-domain range compression data -0.1

is efficiently transformed to frequency-domain using FFTs. -0.2
The phase error is then compensated in the frequency-domain. -0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
The motion compensated data is fed to the azimuth
Time (s)
compression to obtain the focused amplitude image. Azimuth
compression is achieved via matched filtering of the range Fig. 8. Attitude variations of the aircraft
compressed-motion compensated data on each range-bin.
The attitude of the aircraft as estimated by the IGIS is shown
in Fig. 8. The linear variation of yaw angle depicts the
constant drifting of the aircraft from the reference trajectory.

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The velocity components of the APC in the Earth-Centered- 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡), 𝑡 = 0

𝑥𝑟 (𝑡) = (32)
Earth-Fixed (ECEF) frame of reference is shown in Fig. 9. 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑉𝑥 (0) × 𝑃𝑅𝐼, 𝑡 > 0
The insignificant deviation in the x-component of the velocity
𝑦𝑎 (𝑡), 𝑡 = 0
vector signifies that the spatial sampling of the acquired raw 𝑦𝑟 (𝑡) = (33)
data is nearly equal. Therefore, re-sampling of the raw data is 𝑦𝑟 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑉𝑦 (0) × 𝑃𝑅𝐼, 𝑡 > 0
not required for the experimental data set. 𝑧𝑎 (𝑡), 𝑡 = 0
𝑧𝑟 (𝑡) = (34)
𝑧𝑟 𝑡 − 1 , 𝑡 > 0
-139.7
Vx (m/s)

-139.72
-139.74
where 𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 , 𝑧𝑟 and 𝑥𝑎 , 𝑦𝑎 , 𝑧𝑎 are the reference and actual
-139.76
ECEF coordinates of the APC, respectively. PRI signifies the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 pulse repetition time which is the inverse of the PRF.
Time (s)
13.2
Vy (m/s)

13.1 1

deltax (m)
13 -1
12.9
12.8 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-5
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
5 Time (s)
Vz (m/s)

4.75 0

deltay (m)
4.5 -20
4.25 -40
4 -60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-80
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (s)
Fig. 9. Velocity components of the APC in ECEF frame of 30
reference
deltaz (m)

20
10
Fig. 10 presents the horizontal and vertical displacements of 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
the APC. Horizontal displacement is the displacement of the Time (s)
APC in X-Y plane in the ECEF frame of reference while
vertical displacement corresponds to the altitude variations of Fig. 11. Deviations in the position of the APC
the APC.
Horizontal Displacement Vertical Displacement Reference
70 0.1 Actual

2767.59
60 0
Horizontal Displacement (m)

2767.58
Vertical Displacement (m)

-0.1
zECEF (km)

50
2767.57
-0.2
40
-0.3 2767.56

30
Initial Point
-0.4 2767.55
5745.65
20 5745.6 349
-0.5
5745.55 348.5
348
10 5745.5
-0.6 347.5
yECEF (km) 347 xECEF (km)
0 -0.7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213
Time (s) Time (s) Fig. 12. Trajectory of the APC in ECEF frame of reference

Fig. 10. Displacements (horizontal and vertical) of the APC Fig. 13 shows the range error introduced due to translational
motion error and rolling error of the aircraft, and the squint
angle due to the pitching and yawing of the aircraft. Since the
In Fig. 11, the deviation of the APC position components in aircraft is continually drifting away from the nominal
the ECEF frame of reference is shown. Deviation in the x- trajectory, range error also continuously increases from zero.
component is insignificant because the velocity in x-direction
is nearly constant. The effective range error caused due to both translational and
The 3D trajectory of the APC in ECEF frame of reference is rotational motion error of the APC is shown in Fig. 14. The
shown in Fig. 12. Assuming the first actual ECEF coordinates effective range error follows the range error due to
of the APC (provided by the IGIS) to be the reference point, translational motion error; because of the low squint angle.
the reference trajectory is generated as shown below: The effective range error is determined from Eqn. 30; which
shows the dependence of the effective range error on range

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error due to translational motion error and squint angle due to

rotational motion error.

Range error due to translational motion

0
Range error (m)

-20

-40

-60
Fig. 15. Image processed without motion compensation

-80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Time (s)
Squint angle due to rotational motion
-0.011
Squint angle (rad)

-0.012
-0.013
-0.014
-0.015
-0.016
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fig. 16. Image processed with motion compensation
Time (s)
Fig. 13. Target-to-sensor range error due to translational ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
motion error and roll error; and squint angle due to rotational
motion error The authors respectfully acknowledge Dr. Tapan Misra of
Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad for providing
the airborne SAR raw data. The authors would like to thank
0
Mr. V. M. Ramanujam of Space Applications Centre, ISRO,
Ahmedabad and Dr. K. P. Ray of SAMEER, IIT Bombay for
-10 their invaluable guidance.
Effective Range Error (m)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 1 2 3
Fig. 14. Effective range error due to motion errors
In Fig. 15, the amplitude image obtained in absence of motion
compensation is shown. Fig. 16 presents the amplitude image
obtained by compensating the motion errors with the
algorithm presented in the paper.
The paper presents the analysis and compensation technique
of the aircraft’s unintended deviations from the nominal
trajectory in airborne SAR systems. It shows that the
translational and rotational motion errors degrade the image
quality by altering the signal phase history. A description
about the determination of the motion errors and the motion
compensation procedure that is applied to reduce the impact
of motion errors during the SAR processing is addressed.
Finally, the paper discusses the integration of the motion
compensation algorithm within a standard range-Doppler
SAR focusing method.
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Algorithms”, Artech House, Inc.
Cumming, I. G. and Wong, F. H. (2005). “Digital Processing
of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data: Algorithms and
Implementations”, Artech House.
Fornaro, G. (1999). “Trajectory Deviations in Airborne SAR:
Analysis and Compensation”, IEEE Transactions on
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