• PREDATOR - PREY RELATIONSHIP COEVOLUTION the evolution of
EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM
it is a complex and dynamic process that occurs over long periods of
time.
Ecosystems are constantly changing and adapting in response to
various factors, including environmental conditions, climate change,
geological events, and interactions among organisms within
the ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
it is a dynamic process, and the rate and direction of succession can
vary depending on the specific conditions and interactions within an
ecosystem.
PROCESSES AND STAGES INVOLVE IN THE EVOLUTION OF
ECOSYSTEM
FORMATION
Ecosystems begin to form when new habitats become available, such
as after a volcanic eruption, the receding of a glacier, or the
establishment of a new landmass.
SUCCESSIONAL CHANGES
Ecosystems go through a series of changes over time, known as
ecological succession.
2 TYPES OF SUCCESSIONAL CHANGES
• PRIMARY SUCCESSION
occurs when ecosystems develop on barren land with no previous
biological activity
• SECONDARY SUCCESSION
occurs when existing ecosystems are disturbed but not completely
destroyed.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY (part of successional changes)
the climax stage is the last stage of an ecosystem. It is when the
ecosystem has become balanced and there is little risk of an
interfering event or change to mutate the environment.
COLONIZATION AND SPECIES INTERACTION
pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, are often the first to
colonize the area. These species help to create soil and provide a
foundation for other plants to grow.
BIODIVERSITY AND ADAPTATION
this process leads to the development of unique traits and
characteristics in different populations and species.
DISTURBANCE AND RESILIENCE
ecosystems are subject to various disturbances, including fires, storms,
disease outbreaks, and human activities.
LONG - TERM CHANGES
ecosystems can undergo significant changes due to factors like climate
change, geological events, and the movement of tectonic plates.
COEVOLUTION AND MUTUALISM
occurs when two or more species exert selective pressures on each
other.
COEVOLUTION
a process of reciprocal evolutionary change that occurs between two
or more species as they interact with
COEVOLUTIONARY INTERACTIONS
• MUTUALISTIC COEVOLUTION "evolve together "
one organism in a population causes the evolution of other species.
•COMPETITIVE SPECIES COEVOLUTION multiple species compete with
one another for the same
resources. – interspecific and intraspecific competition
MECHANISM OF COEVOLUTION
RECIPROCAL SELECTION
breeding strategy aimed at improving the hybrid performance of two
base populations.
GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
physical separation of population or species.
BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION
occurs when two population of same species have differences in their
behaviours.
Community-level evolutionary processes are focused on genetic
interactions in manipulated and natural environments and
communities of many species of multicellular eukaryotes, specifically
addressing the role of selection operating at multiple levels of
organization.
Community genetics and community selection are also important
concepts in ecology.
What is group or community selection?
It is a concept in evolutionary biology that focuses on the role of
natural selection acting at the level of entire groups or communities
of organisms, rather than solely at the individual level.
2 TYPES OF COMMUNITY
• COMMUNITY GENETICS
focused on genetic interactions in manipulated and natural
environments and communities of many species of multicellular
eukaryotes.
• COMMUNITY SELECTION
refers to selection in which traits evolve according to the fitness
(survival and reproductive success) of groups.
GROUP SELECTION
another type of natural selection that acts collectively on all members
of a given group. It may also be defined as selection in which traits
evolve according to the fitness (survival and reproductive success] .
GROUP COMMUNITY
refers to a group of different species living in the same area.
HABITAT
• It is the address where an animal lives.
• In ecology, it refers to a space and resources used by species living
in a certain environment.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF HABITAT
In order to sustain lives the following are needed by habitats:
WATER, FOOD, SHELTER & SPACE
HABITAT
- place or area where an organism lives or where
it can be found.
- place or area occupied by the entire community that includes the
sum total of atmospheric and soil factors.
- it can be broadly categorize into 4:
* TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
* FRESHWATER HABITAT
* ESTUARINE HABITAT
* MARINE HABITAT
BOREAL ( TAIGA FOREST )
Terrestrial Habitat Earth’s northernmost forests, covering vast tracts of land across
- this habitat is canceled to be the most variable in terms of both time Alaska, Canada, northern Europe, and Russia. Here, temperature dips
and geography. from as low as -50degree Celsius to as high as 30 degree Celsius.
- climate substances are the major factors which, together with their
interactions with organisms, determine the nature of terrestrial AQUATIC HABITAT
communities and ecosystems. Habitat in water is aquatic habitats. Such places include all the water
bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans. It is mainly of three kinds:
CLASSIFICATION OF TERRESTRIAL PLANTS freshwater, marine, and coastal.
• HYDROPHYTES
plants growing on swampy and watery area. FRESHWATER HABITAT
• MESOPHYTES Freshwater habitat: Rivers, lakes, ponds, and streams are examples of
plants growing on wet habitats. freshwater habitat. Fish, frog, duck, lotus, and water lily are found in
• XEROPHYTES fresh water.
plants growing on arid dry lands.
MARINE HABITAT
Freshwater Habitat Marine water habitat: Oceans and seas form the largest habitat on the
- 3% of the world’s water is freshwater: 3⁄4 is stored as iced and nearly planet. Some commonly found animals are whale, dolphins, sharks,
1⁄4 is stored in underground aquifer. octopus, starfish, jellyfish, seahorse, etc, and plants, seaweeds are the
- as reported, all rivers, freshwater lakes and clouds contain less than most common.
1% of the world’s freshwater or 0.03% of the total.
- it can be classified into two: COASTAL HABITAT
• LENTIC ( STANDING WATER ) Coastal habitat refers to the region where the land meets the sea.
from the word “lenis” which means calm.
• LOTIC ( RUNNING WATER ) ESTUARIES
from the word “lotus” which means washed. These places where the saline water of sea or ocean mixes with the
fresh water of rivers. It is the home of marine animals like crab, oyster,
FRESHWATER ORGANISMS worms, and waterfowl. Mangroves seaweeds and marsh grasses are
• AUTOTROPHS ( PRODUCERS ) plants found here.
green plants and chemosynthetic organisms.
• PHAGOTROPHS ( MACROCONSUMERS ) CORAL REEFS
herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. These are the rock-like structure made from calcium carbonate by
• SAPROTROPHS ( MICROCONSUMERS ) corals. They are also called ‘rain-forest of the sea’. Some are
decomposers. commonly found animals are corals, starfish, sea anemone, octopus,
etc
Estuarine Habitat
- this is semi-enclosed coastal body of water that has a free connection GRASSLAND HABITAT
with the open sea. Grasslands are vast open areas covered predominantly by grasses,
- strongly affect tidal actions. with few or no trees. Rainfall usually varies from season to season.

Marine Habitat 2 MAIN KINDS OF GRASSLAND

- 97% of the world’s water is saltwater; contained in ocean/seas and • TROPICAL REGION
saline lakes. Located near the equator.
MAJOR FEATURES OF MARINE HABITAT Also known as savanna.
• Cover 71% of the earth surface. Found in australia, India, Africa, South and northern america.
• Deep and life extend to all its depth. • TEMPERATE REGION
• Continuous and the chief barriers to movements of organisms are Located further away from the equator in both the northern and
temperature, salinity, and depth. southern hemisphere.
• The temperature differences of the Polar and equatorial regions.
• Affected by waves of many kinds and tides produced by the pull of DESERT HABITAT
the moon and the sun. • Deserts are places that don't get much rain, and are very dry.
• Salty • Rainfall: less than 25 cm annually.
• Low concentration of nutrients, except salt. • Summer: 45 degree celsius.
• Paradoxically • Desert ecosystems have adapted to survive in conditions of limited
resources and certain species display remarkable resilience and
Types and Characteristics of HABITAT specialized survival strategies.
FOREST HABITAT
Forest could be a huge zone secured with plants. Forest covers around TUNDRA
one-third of our planet. This region is the coldest of all the habitat found on earth. The lowest
temperature recorded was -88 degree celsius.
TROPICAL FOREST ( TROPICAL RAIN FOREST ) • Permafrost is the rock soil with ice that stays frozen for two or more
These are found between the equator and two tropics, that is, Tropic years.
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The Temperature of these forests • Animals such as polar bears, penguins, seals and walrus are found in
ranges from 20 to 34 degree Celsius. polar regions.
MARINE ECOLOGY
The study of marine-life habitat, populations, and interactions
among organisms and their surrounding environment.
An interactive science that studies the basic structural and
functional relationships within and among living populations and their
physical- chemical environments in marine ecosystem.
It is an interdisciplinary science that combines biology with physical
sciences (e.g. geology, chemistry, oceanography, geophysics,
statistics)
MARINE ECOLOGY deals with the study of the environment and life in
marine waters. It involves the study of:
A. The Marine Environment B. Marine Biota
C. Mangrove and Coral Reefs
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Office of the Vice President for Branches and Campuses Taguig Branch
A. MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Marine environment means the environment of the sea, and
includes the physical, chemical, geological, biological and genetic
components, conditions and factors.
In other term, Marine environments are those in the World’s Seas
and Oceans below the high tide mark. It relates to the morphology of
near shore, off shore, and deep water zones of the ocean.
Marine Biologist study the life in the oceans, and sometimes the
oceans themselves. They are the one who interact and determine the
productivity, state, condition and quality of the marine ecosystem.
ROCKY SHORE ECOSYSTEM
Along a rocky shore, you may find rock cliffs, boulders, small and large
rocks, and tide pools (puddles of water that can contain a surprising
array of marine life). You will also find the intertidal zone, which is the
area between low and high tide.
SANDY BEACH ECOSYSTEM
Sandy beaches may seem lifeless compared to other ecosystems, at
least when it comes to marine life. However, these ecosystems have a
surprising amount of biodiversity. Similar to the rocky shore, animals
in a sandy beach ecosystem have had to adapt to the constantly
changing environment. Marine life in a sandy beach ecosystem may
burrow in the sand or need to move quickly out of reach of the waves.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Mangrove trees are salt-tolerant plant species with roots that dangle
into the water. Forests of these plants provide shelter for a variety of
marine life and are important nursery areas for young marine animals.
SALT MARSH ECOSYSTEM
Salt marshes are areas that flood at high tide and are composed of
salt-tolerant plants and animals. Salt marshes are important in many
ways: they provide habitat for marine life, birds and migratory birds,
they’re important nursery areas for fish and invertebrates, and they
protect the rest of the coastline by buffering wave action and
absorbing water during high tides and storms.
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM
Healthy coral reef ecosystems are filled with an amazing amount of
diversity, including hard and soft corals, invertebrates of many sizes,
and even large animals, such as sharks and dolphins.
KELP FOREST
Kelp forests are very productive ecosystems. The most dominant
feature in a kelp forest is — you guessed it — kelp. The kelp provides
food and shelter for a variety of organisms. Kelp forests are found in
cooler waters that are between 42 and 72 degrees Fahrenheit and in
water depths from about six to 90 feet.
POLAR ECOSYSTEM
Polar Ecosystems are found in the extremely cold waters at the Earth’s
poles. These areas have both cold temperatures and fluctuations in
the availability of sunlight. At some times in polar regions, the sun
doesn’t rise for weeks.
DEEP SEA ECOSYSTEM
The term “deep sea” refers to parts of the ocean that are over 1,000
meters (3,281 feet). One challenge for marine life in this ecosystem is
light and many animals have adapted so that they can see in low light
conditions, or don’t need to see at all. Another challenge is pressure.
Many deep-sea animals have soft bodies so they aren’t crushed under
the high pressure that is found at extreme
HYDROTHERMAL VENTS
While they are located in the deep sea, hydrothermal vents and the
areas around them make up their own unique ecosystem.
Hydrothermal vents are underwater geysers that spew mineral-rich,
750-degree water into the ocean. These vents are located along
tectonic plates, where cracks in the Earth’s crust occur and seawater
in the cracks is heated up by the Earth’s magma. As the water heats
and pressure rises, the water is released, where it mixes with the
surrounding water and cools, depositing minerals around the
hydrothermal vent.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE ENVIRONMENT
– Marine environments can be characterized broadly as a water or
Pelagic Environment and a bottom or Benthic Environment.
PELAGIC ENVIRONMENT
– The pelagic zone refers to the water column, where swimming and
floating organisms live.
– Pelagic environment are divided into two;
• Neritic Province – the water above the continental shelf
• Oceanic province – includes all the open waters beyond the
continental shelf
BENTHIC ENVIRONMENT
– The benthic zone refers to the bottom, and organisms living on and
in
the bottom are known as the benthos
– The benthic environment also is divided into different zones;
• Supralittoral is above the high-tide mark and is usually not under
water.
• Intertidal or Littoral Zone ranges from the high-tide mark (the
maximum elevation of the tide) to the shallow, offshore waters.
• Sublittoral is the environment beyond the low-tide mark and is often
used to refer to substrata of the continental shelf.
MARINE BIOTA
Marine biota can be classified broadly into those organisms living in
either the pelagic environment or benthic environment.
– Plankton and Nekton (Pelagic environment)
– Benthos (Benthic environment)
PLANKTON AND NEKTON IN PELAGIC ENVIRONMENT
PLANKTON
– It is derived from the greek
‘planktos’, meaning wandering or drifting, an apt description of the
way most plankton spend their existence
– They are primarily microscopic inhabitants of the pelagic
environment.
– They are critical components of food chains in all marine
environments because they provide nutrition for the nekton
(They also exert a global effect on the biosphere because the balance
of components of the Earth’s atmosphere depends to a great extent
on the photosynthetic activities of some plankton.)
– PROTISTS are the large proportion of Plankton.
TWO KINDS OF PROTISTS (PLANKTONS)
• PHYTOPLANKTON – plants or plantlike protists that carry out
photosynthesis and are the producers of the marine community. Two
highly diverse groups of Phytoplankton are Diatoms (the most
abundant phytoplankton) and Dinoflagellates (phytoplankton that
carry out photosynthesis)
• ZOOPLANKTON – animals or animal-like protists that are considered
as the heterotrophic consumers. Zooplanktons are divided into two
general categories; Meroplankton (which spend only a part of their
life cycle as plankton) and Holoplankton (which exist as plankton all
their lives). The Jellylike Zooplankton are numerous and predatory.
They secure their prey with stinging cells or sticky cells.
NEKTON
– Nekton are the active swimmers of
the oceans and are often the best-
known organisms of marine waters.
– They are the top predators in most
marine food chains
– The vast majority of nekton are
vertebrates and are found at all depths and latitudes of marine waters
– The most numerous group of nekton
are the fishes, with approximately 16,000 species.
EXAMPLE MEMBERS OF NEKTON
• BLUE WHALES – the largest animals on the Earth which grow to 25
to 30 metres long.
• TOOTHED WHALES – the largest carnivores that consume large prey.
• WHALE SHARKS – the largest fish in the world.
BENTHOS IN BENTHIC ENVIRONMENT
BENTHOS
– Animals that live on the sea floor are called benthos.
– Benthic organisms can be classified according to size:
Macrobenthos are those organisms larger than 1 millimetre
Meiobenthos areorganisms between 0.1 and 1 millimetre.
Microbenthos are those organisms smaller than 1 millimetre
MANGROVE AND CORAL REEFS
MANGROVE
– Part of the coastal and
marine ecosystem that includes sea grass and the coral reefs.
– The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) considers the mangrove forest as a
bridge between terrestrial and marine environments, and as a
productive ecosystem.
Mangroves transfer organic matter and energy from land to sea,
forming the base of many marine food sources.
– Since mangrove forests grow where saltwater meets the shore in
tropical and subtropical regions, they serve as an interface between
terrestrial, fresh-water and marine ecosystems.
THREATS TO MANGROVES
The mangrove forests are one of the world’s most threatened tropical
ecosystems. More than 35% of the world’s mangroves are already
gone. The threats includes:
• Clearing
• Overharvesting
• Overfishing
• Destruction of coral reefs • Pollution
CORAL REEFS
– It is often called “rainforests of the sea”
– Massive seawater structures formed by the accumulation of tiny-
bodied organisms known as coral that provides habitat for a large
variety of marine life.
– Corals are living animals that have a symbiotic relationship with
microscopic algae called “Zooxanthellae”
TYPES OF CORAL REEFS
• Fringing Reefs (also named as Shore Reefs) Coral reefs grow along
the continental margins or along the Islands fringing reefs.
• Barrier Reefs are extensive, highest, and widest linear reefs which
run parallel to a shore and are separated by a lagoon many times.
• Atolls is a ring of narrow growing coral reef systems which surround
a large and deep central lagoon.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP OF MANGROVE AND CORAL REEF
– Mangroves and coral reefs have a symbiotic relationship that is
crucial for the health and functioning of coastal ecosystems. This
relationship is often referred to as the “mangrove-coral reef
continuum” or the “blue-green connection.” Here’s some of the
symbiotic aspects between mangroves and coral reefs
• Nutrient exchange
• Sediment trapping and stabilization • Water quality regulation
• Habitat and nursery grounds
• Storm Protection
TUNDRA
The term ‘Tundra’ has been derived from a Russian word that means
“Treeless Mountain Tract”.
Tundra is usually found in particularly cold and windy areas, with
harsher conditions for both animal and plant life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNDRA BIOME
LAND - In the tundra, the surface of the ground is permanently frozen
which the phenomenon is called permafrost. The freezing can
continue in greater or lesser depth depending on the air temperature.
FLORA - The most numerous plants in the tundra are bushes, moss,
and lichens.
FAUNA - The species of animals that live in the tundra have undergone
adaptations to adapt to the climatic conditions.
Midnight Sun
The phenomenon of the “midnight sun” occurs both in the Antarctic
tundra and in the Arctic tundra. Due to its proximity to the poles, in
summer the sun stays on the horizon or is barely hidden, creating the
phenomenon of white nights.
Polar night
The phenomenon is contrary to the midnight sun: during the winter,
in the areas near the poles the sun remains hidden for days or even
months, increasing the night time the closer the area is to the pole.
Tundra Seasons
The tundra has two distinct seasons:
a long winter and a short summer.
▪The winter lasts around 8 months and is extremely cold. In the middle
of winter the sun may not rise for weeks.
▪The summer is shorter and is marked by the other extreme of the sun
not setting. In the middle of summer the sun will be up for 24 hours.
CLASSIFICATION OF TUNDRA
1.Alpine Tundra - Alpine tundra is the area of land high in the
mountains above the treeline.
In this biome, smaller trees and other types of plants are more
prevalent. (common)
2. Arctic Tundra - ARCTIC TUNDRA is the world’s youngest biome. The
Arctic tundra is located far north in the northern hemisphere along
the Arctic Circle.
3. Antarctic Tundra - is located on the continent of Antarctica, on and
around the South Pole. These types of tundra are usually completely
covered in ice.
NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST BIOME
•Also referred to as the boreal forest or taiga.
•A kind of biome situated in temperate regions of the globe
that experience
MOIST TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FOREST BIOME
The moist temperate coniferous forest of the Pacific Northwest
includes the area from the coastal ranges of northern California
(below 5000 ft. elevation) to the southern coast of Alaska (below 2000
ft.). Because of its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, the climate is mild
and without temperature extremes. Precipitation varies from 50
inches per year in the southern portion of the biome, where relatively
dry summers prevail, to 200 inches on the mountain slopes of
Washington and southern British Columbia.
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
Temperate deciduous or also known as temperate broad-leaf forests
(because the trees have wide, flat leaves.) are a variety of temperate
forests 'dominated' by trees that lose their leaves each year.
➢can be found in areas with warm moist summers and cool winters.
➢ Renowned for having four seasons: winter, spring, summer, and fall
➢With four seasons and varying temperatures, they receive 750-
1,500 mm of precipitation evenly throughout the year.
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY AND BIOMES
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
• The terrestrial environment is a collection of communities of both
living and nonliving things.
• A study of organisms that exist or can only be found on landforms.
• The concept of the terrestrial environment tells the interaction
between the natural components of the geosphere and the biosphere.
TYPES OF TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
TAIGA " Cold - climate forests "
DESERT
Deserts are known to be “extremely hot”, “dry”, and “empty”.
TUNDRA
• Treeless
• Climates in Tundra are cold and windy, and rainfall is very rare.
GRASSLANDS
Grasslands are open and continuous, fairly flat areas of grass
RAINFORESTS
Rainforests are the oldest Earth’s ecosystems, for almost 70 million
years, rainforests exist.
DECIDUOUS FOREST
Is a type of forest that sheds its leaves every year when days is getting
shorter and colder.
BIOTA
In ecology, biota is simply the general or all plants and animals life
found in a specific region at the specific times. They are the organisms
that occupy ecological niche. It refers to the total collection of
organisms in a particular ecosystem.
BIOTA
Biota of the region are mainly divided into 3 major groups:
Producers, Consumers and Decomposers.
Generally, biota defines the interdependence of species in a particular
region.
THE SOIL SUBSYSTEM
Soils can be thought of as being made up of four main components.
• Mineral particles mainly from
the underlying rock
• Organic remains that have come
from the plants and animals.
• Water within spaces between
soil grains
• Air within the soil
SOIL SUBSYSTEM
refers to the component of an ecosystem or agricultural system that
focuses on the study or
management of soil. It involves understanding the properties,
composition, and processes occurring within the soil, as
well as their interactions with plants, organisms, and the environment.
COMMON GROUPS WITHIN THE SOIL SUBSYSTEM
Physical Soil Subsystem
This group focuses on the physical properties and characteristics of
the soil. It includes aspects
such as soil texture, soil structure, bulk density, and compaction.
Chemical Soil Subsystem
This group examines the chemical composition and processes
occurring within the soil. It involves studying soil pH, nutrient
availability, exchange, organic matter content, and soil fertility.
Chemical reactions, such as mineral weathering, nutrient
transformations, and microbial activities, are also considered.
Biological Soil Subsystem
This group focuses on the living organisms present in the soil and their
interactions with the soil environment. It includes studying soil
microbiology, soil fauna, plant roots, and soil-dwelling organisms'
roles in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, soil structure
formation, and plant-microbe interactions.
Hydrological Soil Subsystem
This group examines the movement and storage of water within the
soil. It includes studying soil water content, infiltration, percolation,
water-holding capacity, drainage, evaporation, and transpiration.
Ecological Soil Subsystem
This group considers the soil as an integral part of the broader
ecosystem. It involves studying the interactions between soil and
vegetation, wildlife, and the surrounding environment. This includes
examining soil as a habitat for organisms, its role in supporting
biodiversity, its influence on ecosystem processes such as carbon
sequestration and nutrient cycling, and its response to land
management practices.
KEY ASPECTS OF SOIL SUBSYSTEM • Soil Composition
it contains various components, such as sand, silt, clay, and humus,
which contribute to its physical and chemical properties.
• Soil Structure
soil particles combine to form aggregates, creating pore spaces that
allow for the movement of air and water.
• Soil Nutrients
soils contain essential nutrients required for plant growth, including
macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and
micronutrients (iron, zinc, copper, etc.).
• Soil pH
pH is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. Soil amendments can be
used to modify pH levels when necessary.
• Soil Organisms
a wide range of organisms resides in the soil, including bacteria, fungi,
insects, earthworms, and other microorganisms.
• Soil Water
soil acts as a reservoir for water, storing it for plant uptake and
providing drainage to prevent waterlogging.
• Soil Erosion
refers to the loss of topsoil due to factors like wind, water, or human
activities.
• Soil Conservation
practices aim to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health.
• Soil Management
involves understanding soil properties and requirements for specific
land uses.
• Soil Contamination
soil can become contaminated by pollutants from industrial activities,
agricultural chemicals, improper waste disposal and or other
resources.
MICROBIOTA
defined as the assemblage of living microorganisms present in a
defined community.
What role do microbiota play in the Human?
The Human microbiota are the ecological communities that live in and
on our bodies.
MICROBIOTA Community of microorganisms
MICROBIOME Collection of gene-sequences
Bacteria perform many important ecosystem services in the soil
including soil structure and soil aggregation, recycling of soil nutrients
and water recycling.
MESOBIOTA
Mesobiota (mesofauna, mesoflora) are organisms generally term for
soil organisms of intermediate size, ranging in size from 0.1 to 2 mm
in diameter consist of nematodes, enchytraeids, collembola or
springtails, mites, rotifers and small insects (arthropods) .
NEMATODES
are very small, slender worms: typically, about 5 to 100
μm(micrometer) thick, and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. Nematodes vary
widely in their feeding habits, and their primary food source can
usually be identified from the morphology of their mouth.
MESOFAUNA
refers to small, invertebrate animals found in the soil,
characteristically annelids, arthropods, nematodes, and molluscs.
Collembola dominate the meso-fauna in terms of numbers.
The mesobiota play an important role in nutrient cycling in the soil.
This is less because of the magnitude of their own metabolism, as due
to their influence in the bacteria and fungi they predate.
MACROBIOTA
• any living organisms in a given area large enough to be seen with the
naked eye.
• organisms larger than 10mm. In terms of biomass and abundance,
they make up a much smaller fraction of the soil biota than
microorganisms and mesofauna.
MESOFAUNA
very small invertibrate animals such as mites, nematodes or
centipedes that usually .1mm to 2mm (.004 to .08inch) in length.
INVERTEBRATES
a cold-blooded animal with no backbone. Invertebrates can live on
land-like insects, spiders, and worms-or in water. Marine
invertebrates include crustaceans (such as crabs and lobsters),
mollusks (such as squids and clams), and coral.
ARTHROPODS
biggest group of invertebrates. All arthropods have an external
skeleton that protects their
body and they also have many legs like spiders, centipedes, crabs.
BIOMES
are large-scale environments that are distinguished by characteristic
temperature ranges and amounts of precipitation. The distribution of
these biomes shows that the same biome can occur in geographically
distinct areas with similar climates.
There are eight major terrestrial biomes:
Tropical rainforests Savannas
Subtropical deserts Chaparral
Temperate grasslands Temperate forests Boreal forests
Arctic tundra
TROPICAL WET FOREST
• Also referred to as tropical rainforests.
• This biome is found in equatorial regions.
• The vegetation is characterized by plants with broad leaves that fall
and are replaced throughout the year.
• Unlike the trees of deciduous forests, the trees in this biome do not
have a seasonal loss of leaves associated with variations in
temperature and sunlight; these forests are “evergreen” year-round.
SAVANNAS
• Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, and they are located
in Africa, South America, and northern Australia.
• Savannas are usually hot, tropical areas with temperatures
averaging from 24 °C to 29 °C (75 °F to 84 °F) and an annual rainfall of
10–40 cm (3.9–15.7 in).
• As a result, within the grasses and forbs that dominate the savanna,
there are relatively few trees. Since fire is an important source of
disturbance in this biome, plants have evolved well- developed root
systems that allow them to quickly resprout after a fire.
SUBTROPICAL DESERTS
• It exist between 15° and 30° north and south latitude and are
centered on the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
• This biome is very dry; in some years, evaporation exceeds
precipitation.
• Subtropical hot deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures
above 60 °C (140 °F) and night time temperatures approaching 0 °C
(32 °F). In cold deserts, temperatures can be as high as 25 °C and can
drop below -30 °C (-22 °F).
CHAPARRAL
• Also called the scrub forest and is found in California.
• The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65 cm to 75 cm
(25.6–29.5 in), and the majority of the rain falls in the winter.
• Summers are very dry and many chaparral plants are dormant
during the summertime.
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
• Can be found throughout central North America, where they are
also known as prairies; they are also in Eurasia, where they are known
as steppes.
• Temperate grasslands have pronounced annual fluctuations in
temperature with hot summers and cold winters.
• The annual temperature variation produces specific growing
seasons for plants.
TEMPERATE FORESTS
• The most common biome in eastern North America, Western Europe,
Eastern Asia, Chile, and New Zealand.
• This biome is found throughout mid-latitude regions.
• Temperatures ranges between -30 °C and 30 °C (-22 °F to 86 °F) and
drop to below freezing periodically during cold winters.
• Deciduous trees lose their leaves each fall and remain leafless in the
winter.
BOREAL FORESTS
• Also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found south of the Arctic
Circle and across most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe.
This biome has cold, dry winters and short, cool, wet summers. The
annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.7–39 in) and usually
takes the form of snow.
• The net primary productivity of boreal forests is lower than that of
temperate forests and tropical wet forests.
• The structure of a boreal forest is often only a tree layer and a
ground layer.
ARCTIC TUNDRA
• The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forest and is
located throughout the Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere.
• The average winter temperature is -34 °C (29.2 °F) and the average
summer temperature is from 3 °C to 12 °C (37 °F–52 °F).
• Plants in the arctic tundra have a very short growing season of
approximately 10–12 weeks.
• Plants in the Arctic tundra are generally low to the ground.
BIOMES
BIOMES A biome is an area classified according to the species that live
in that location. There are terrestrial biomes (land) and aquatic
biomes, both freshwater and marine.
Temperate Grassland Biomes What are Temperate Grasslands?
• The temperate grasslands that you are most likely to encounter on
a regular basis, or might affect your life. While there are larger biomes,
such as the aquatic one, the temperate grasslands are most closely
involved with sustaining human life.
• They play an important role in our survival and in helping to manage
climate change in our world.
• Temperate grasslands are located in the Northern Hemisphere.
• They are also called prairies or steppes.
• Temperate grasslands have a distinct season Pattern Of Growing Or
Dormancy ( a process of preserving energy from stressful season )
LOCATION:
• Both types of grassland biomes COVERED almost 25% of all of the
Earth’s landmass. Every continent has a grassland biome except one
(ANTARCTICA).
• Temperate grasslands are located ABOVE the EQUATOR on the
Northern Continents. One of the largest temperate grasslands was the
(US PRAIRIE Land).
Temperate grasslands can be large or small. As long as the area is
bordered by a desert or a forest, it can be considered a grassland.
CLIMATE / TEMPERATURE:
• Temperate grasslands have a mild range of temperatures, but they
have distinct seasons. (They have HOT SUMMERS and COLD WINTERS)
• During summers, the temperature can be well over 100 degrees
Fahrenheit. The growing season covers the traditional spring/summer
months, and temperatures in this biome vary greatly between
summer and winter months.
• The fall/winter season can bring temperatures to as low as -40
degrees Fahrenheit. This is the dormancy season, and it is
characterized by a dying out or hibernation of plants until the weather
and soil became warm in the spring. It receives about 10 – 35 inches
of precipitation a year in the late spring and early summer, and much
of it falls as snow in the winter.
Types of Conservation Efforts
• Open spaces are being preserved more today, and grasslands are a
consideration for all development projects.
• Endangered plants and animals have their habitats more vigorously
protected.
• Municipalities are working to replant grass and revitalize soil where
historical growth has caused harm.
• Climate change policies are addressing industrial and developing
habits that have caused harm to the environment.
DESERT BIOMES
The Desert Biome is an ecosystem that forms due to the low level of
rainfall it receives each year. It is the driest of all biomes. It covers
about one-fifth or 20% of the Earth surface.
Characteristics of Desert Biome
1. Lowprecipitation
Deserts experience extreme shortages of water due to lack of
precipitation. The primary characteristic of deserts is that they are dry.
Deserts are commonly defined as areas that receive less than 10 in
(250 mm) of rain annually. There are records of deserts going without
rain for hundreds of years, for example, the Atacama Desert in Chile.
However, most deserts do receive rain, even if only for a few days each
year.
Desert rainfall is usually unpredictable. As a result, desert animals and
plants cannot rely on the presence of moisture for their growing or
reproductive seasons – they must first wait for rain to arrive before
completing their life cycles.
2. ClearSkies/Extremesoftemperature
The temperature in the desert can change drastically from day to night
because the air is so dry that heat escapes rapidly at night. The
daytime temperature averages 38°C while in some deserts it can get
down to -4°C at night. The temperature also varies greatly depending
on the location of the desert.
The air is dry in deserts, and clouds do not form; therefore, clear skies
are also a characteristic of deserts.
The cloudless skies allow much of the sun’s radiation to reach the
ground, leading to very high daytime temperatures.
Similarly, once the sun sets in a desert, the warmth is quickly radiated
away into the atmosphere as there are no clouds to trap it. This causes
very low temperatures at night.
Desert plants and animals must be able to tolerate extremes of both
heat and cold.
3. Slow-growing Plants
Deserts are also characterized by having plants that grow very slowly.
The process of photosynthesis (in which plants use the sun’s energy
to make food for growth) requires water. Because water is in short
supply, plant production in deserts is the lowest of any biome on earth.
TYPES OF DESERTS 1. Subtropicaldeserts
The Sahara Desert in Africa
Subtropical deserts, also known as Arid desert, temperatures are hot
and dry year-round. They occur at low latitudes, to the south and
north of the equator. The dry conditions are caused by patterns of
atmospheric circulation that start over equatorial regions.
Africa’s Sahara Desert that covers much of the African continent and
the largest hot desert, 3rd largest behind Antarctica and Arctic is an
example of a subtropical desert.
2. TemperateDeserts
Also referred to semi-arid deserts. These deserts are still hot and dry
but a bit cooler and receive a bit more precipitation than hot and dry
deserts. They are found more dispersed in the world below 23.5° N,
normally in regions with tall mountain ranges where there is a rain-
shadow effect.
The largest temperate desert is the Gobi Desert (Bactrian camels in
the Gobi Desert) of central Asia.
3. Coastaldeserts
Coastal deserts are a bit more humid than other types of deserts.
Although heavy fogs blow in from the coast, rainfall is still rare. Very
dry deserts that are much cooler, especially in winter. They are more
humid from being by the water but receive very little rainfall at all.
They are found right along the coast, for example The Atacama Desert
in Chile.
4. Polardeserts
Polar deserts are regions that are permanently covered by ice. Polar
air is very dry and produces little or no rain. Earth’s two largest deserts
are polar deserts, one covering Antarctica (south pole); the other in
the Arctic (north pole).
Desert Animals & Plants
The organisms living in deserts are mostly evolved from species that
occurred in those regions long ago, when there was more water
available. This means that each desert has its own set of plants and
animals.
However, all desert species–wherever they are found–must be able to
survive with very little water, and also to tolerate extreme
temperatures.
Since desert conditions are so severe, the plants that live there need
to have adaptations to compensate for the lack of water.
PLANTS IN DESERT
Desert plants must obtain moisture and store it for times when no rain
falls. Some have a network of shallow roots that enables them to
absorb moisture that falls onto the soil, including drops of dew or
condensed fog. Others have deep tap roots that can reach water far
below the surface.
What is in a tropical rainforest?
The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome where it rains all year long.
It is known for its dense canopies of vegetation that form three
different layers. The top layer or canopy contains giant trees that grow
to heights of 75 m (about 250 ft) or more.
What animal or plant lives in a rainforest?
The many native plants of our country’s rainforests include orchids,
begonias, palms, figs, Rafflesia, dipterocarps, among others. It also
serves as the habitat of Philippine eagle, hornbills, flying foxes, cloud
rats, tamaraw, Philippine tarsier, Philippine warty pigs, and Philippine
crocodile
LOCATION OF SEIRRA MADRE : within the Sierra Madre Biogeographic
Zone (SMBGZ) which lies along the eastern side of Central Luzon.
Why are Philippines called tropical rainforests?
Due to its position near the equator and the fact that it is surrounded
by large bodies of water, the climate of the rainforests remains the
same year round, this being hot, wet and humid.
The Luzon rain forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion on
the island of Luzon. Luzon is the largest island in the Philippines, and
the Luzon rain forests is the most extensive rainforest ecoregion of the
country.
Why is it called a rainforest?
The reason it is called a “rain” forest is because of the high amount of
rainfall it gets per year. Rainforests have an annual rainfall of at least
100 inches (254 centimeters) and often much more.
Why is tropical rainforest also called?
A tropical rain forest always appears green and therefore it is called
an
evergreen forest
What is tropical rainforest and its importance?
Rainforests are often called the lungs of the planet for their role in
absorbing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and increasing local
humidity. Rainforests also stabilize climate, house incredible amounts
of plants and wildlife, and produce nourishing rainfall all around the
planet.
What are 4 characteristics of tropical rainforest? Key characteristics
of tropical rainforests
1. Verywetwithover2,000mmofrainfallperyear.
2. Verywarmwithanaveragedailytemperatureof28°C.The
temperature never drops below 20°C and rarely exceeds 35°C.
3. Theatmosphereishotandhumid.
4. Theclimateisconsistentallyearround.Therearenoseasons.
TROPICAL SAVANNA BIOME
Why is it called “Tropical” Savanna?
• A Tropical Savanna – is a grassland dotted with trees. • Located at
tropical latitudes.
CLIMATE
• A Tropical dry and wet climate.
• Although it is located at tropical latitudes it is much drier than most
tropical forest.
• The average temperature is at or above 64 degrees F. • Rainfall – 50
to 150 cm (20 to 60 inches).
• All this rainfall can occur within weeks.
• During the 5 months dry season less than 4 inches.
LOCATION
• Widespread on the continent of Africa. • India.
• Northen parts of South America.
• Australia.
BIOTIC FACTORS
Vegetation (Tall grasses, shrubs, and trees.)
Animals (Rhinos, Elephants, Zebras, Hyenas, Cheetahs, Lions, Ostrich,
Leopard and more...)
ABIOTIC FACTORS
• Fires from seasonal Lightning • Seasonal Rainfall
• Drought
• High Temperature
• Compact soil
ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS
• During the dry season, most birds and large mammals migrate.
• - Ex. Elephants migrate but they also have the physical strength to
tear
open a tree and drink its water
• - Ex. Small burrowing animals go to sleep kind of like bears.
Lightning also causes fires which means animals need to fly and run
fast.
• - Ex. Fork-tailed Drongos attracted. They feast on the fleeing insects.
• - Small burrowing animals dig deep underground.
TROPICAL SAVANNA PLANTS
Most common are. • Acacia tree • Baobab tree
Grass can grow 6 to 9 feet tall.
To survive the fires and droughts plants:
- Grasses turn brown to limit water loss.
- Store nutrients and moisture in roots
- Fire stimulates new growth and replenishes the soil with nutrients
PLANTS ADAPTATIONS
• Baobab tree has adapted by:
- only producing leaves in the wet season - Leaves are tiny fingerlike
clusters
- Their small size limits water loss
- Ability to store water in its large trunk
• Acacia tree has adapted by:
- Developing long tap roots that reach deep, ground water sources -
Fire resistant
- Long sharp thorns to ward off animals
- And symbiotic relationship with stinging ants
POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENT HEALTH LEARNING OBJECTIVES 5. RADIOACTIVE WASTE
- Differentiate the types of pollution. 6. E-WASTE
- State ways to manage wastes. 7. BIOMEDICAL WASTE

Kinds of Pollution Characteristics of Waste

Waste Management and Control Radiation Effects and Radiation IGNITABILITY
Radioactive Waste Disposal CORROSIVITY
REACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION: ENVIRONMENT HEALTH TOXICITY
Environment Health refers to the aspects of human health (including
quality of life) that are determined Ways to Manage and Control Waste
by physical, chemical, biological, social and psychosocial factors in the 1. 3 RS (REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE)
environment. Clean air, stable climate, nutritious food, safe places to 2.COMPOSTING
live, and safe drinking water are some of the requirements for human 3.NO SINGLE USE PLASTIC POLICY
health that link directly to the environment. 4. PROPER WASTE SEGREGATION
POLLUTION 5. BIOGAS GENERATION
Pollution is a public health concern, and is considered to be any 6. INERTIZATION
harmful material introduced to the environment. Many materials can
cause such harm and are referred to as pollutants. RADIATION EFFECTS
• Kinds of Pollution Radiation is an energy that comes from a source and travels through
1. AIR POLLUTION - is any hazardous substance, natural or space at the speed of light. This energy has an electric field and a
manufactured, that exists in the magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like properties. You
air. It can be invisible, but it can often be seen. could also call radiation “electromagnetic waves”
Natural Air Pollution • Beneficial Uses of Radiation to:
Volcanic Eruption Ash and Gas 1. MEDICINE AND HEALTH
Methane Gas from Soil Composition Used in medicine to diagnose illnesses.
Manufactured Air Pollution Used to treat disease such as cancer.
Vehicle Emissions It kills harmful bacteria in food and to extend the shelf life of fresh
Homes heated by Fuel and Natural Gas produce and can
2. WATER POLLUTION - Water that manufactured or natural chemicals also be used to disinfect medical equipment.
have contaminated. 2. ACADEMICS
Similar to air pollution, some water pollution can be visible, and some Used in labeling substances, similar to how doctors label substances
cannot. Some examples of water pollution are untreated sewage that within the human body.
contaminates water and toxic chemicals that contaminate marine life. Instrumental in studying soil types required for plant growth,
3. SOIL POLLUTION - refers to a type of land pollution involving identifying oil fields, and understanding ocean currents.
contaminated soil that can harm those who touch it, ingest it, or Low-energy radioactive sources are used in gas chromatography to
breathe in its toxic fumes. Examples given: excessive pesticides and identify components in petroleum products, smog, cigarette smoke,
fertilizer use and industrial dumping. as well as complex proteins and enzymes utilized in medical research.
4. LIGHT POLLUTION - is also referred to as photo pollution, is an 3. INDUSTRY
excessive amount of light that creates a glow in the night sky. Light Nuclear equipment may someday be used to replace chlorine for
pollution is another type of pollution that people might not consider disinfection.
because it is less widely spoken about. For instance, car lights, offices, Ultraviolet lights make use of radiation to disinfect household
buildings, and factories lights are one of the pollutions of light. objects, sometimes
5. NOISE POLLUTION - it is considered to be persistent, disturbing, or also used in Electronics.
unwanted noise. It's considered pollution because it is a phenomenon Used to help remove toxic pollutants, such as exhaust gases from
that affects the quality of life of those in the environment. Examples: coal-fired power
cars, trucks, motorcycles, trains, transport equipment, and airplanes stations and industry.
and helicopter noises. Used to control insect populations, thereby decreasing the use of
III. WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL dangerous
"There is no such thing as 'away'. When we throw anything away it pesticides.
must go somewhere." - Annie Leonard 4. NUCLEAR POWER
Waste is defined as unwanted materials and is regarded as substance Electricity produced by nuclear fission.
of no use. The types of wastes can be in a form of solid, liquid, or Splitting the atom.
gaseous by-products resulting from human biological processes, It is one of the greatest uses of radiation as it is a clean and
manufacturing, materials processing, consumption of goods, or any affordable source of
other human activities. energy.
• Types of Waste
1. SOLID WASTE • Danger of Misusing Radiation
2. LIQUID WASTE 1. ON HUMANS
3. GASEOUS WASTE At very high doses, radiation can impair the functioning of tissues and
• Origin of Waste organs and produce acute effects such as nausea and vomiting, skin
1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE redness, hair loss, radiation burns, acute radiation syndrome or even
2. INDUSTRIAL WASTE death.
3. AGRICULTURAL WASTE 2. ON ENVIRONMENT
4. FISHERY WASTE
Currently, radiation does not significantly harm the environment.
Radioactive equipment has not advanced enough to directly harm the
environment in everyday use. At present, the only object known to
cause significant harm to the environment is a nuclear bomb, which is
used rarely. However, improper disposal of radioactive equipment can
pollute the environment.
V. RADIOACTIVE WAS DISPOSAL
Radioactive Waste Disposal is the disposal of contaminated waste that
came from radioactive sources. It is done to avoid any chance of
radiation exposure to people, or any pollution.
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL - any material containing unstable atoms
that emit ionizing radiation as it decays.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE - Also known as Nuclear Waste. It is produced
by industries such as mining, nuclear power generation, defense,
medicine, and certain types of scientific research.
How is radioactive waste produced?
When we use radioactive materials, some of this material will
inevitably transfer to the things they touch. This causes their surfaces
to become contaminated. Eventually these contaminated items will
be managed as radioactive waste.
• 3 Main Types of Radioactive Waste
1. LOW LEVEL WASTE
Contain very low levels of radioactivity.
Waste which does not require shielding during handling and
transportation. Makes up to 90% of the total waste.
2. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE
Contains higher level of radioactivity than low level wastes.
Requires shielding but does not require heat dissipation during
handling and
transportation.
Are usually made up of chemical sludge, resins.
Makes up to 7% of the total waste.

3. HIGH LEVEL WASTE

Contains large amounts of radioactivity and is thermally hot.
Makes up to 3% of the total waste.
95% of radioactivity.
Usually made up of elements such as plutonium and uranium.
• 3 Main Types in the Processing of Radioactive Waste 1. PRE-
TREATMENT
Prepares the waste for processing and may include sorting and
segregation to separate out contaminated items from non-
contaminated ones.
2. TREATMENT
Once the waste is suitably prepared, the next step is treatment to
enhance its safety and reduce the costs of further management
phases, such as storage or disposal.
3. CONDITIONING
Conditioning brings the waste into a safe, stable and manageable form
so it can be transported, stored and disposed.