Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 1

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 2

INDEX

UNIT VII : GENETICS AND EVOLUTION

1. Principles of Inheritance and Variation - 3-12

2. Molecular Basis of Inheritance - 13-28

3. Evolution - 29-36

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 3

• Which page has the maximum

77, 89 = 2 Pages
27.3 % QUESTIONS

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 4

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

1. Genetics deals with the inheritance as well as variation of characters
from parents to offsprings.
2. Inheritance is the process progency differs from their parents.
3. Variation is the degree by which progency differs from their parents.
4. Indian breeds (Sahiwal cows) develop in Punjab.
5. Gregor mendel conducted hydridisation experiment on Garden Peas
for seven year (1856-1563) & proposed laws of inheritance in living
orgnaisms. [NEET 2017][NCERT 70]
6. Mendal selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties.
[NEET 2020] [NCERT 70]
7. Seven pairs of contrasting traids studied by mendal on pea plants
[NEET 2015] [NCERT 70]
Character Dominant traid Recessive traid
[NEET 2017,2015] [NCERT 71]
Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Seed colour Yellow Green
Flower colour Voilet White
Pod shape Full Constricted
Pod colour Green Yellow
Flower position Axial Terminal
Stem Height Tall Dwarf
8. Genes – unit of inheritance, contain the information that is required to
express a particular traid.
9. Mendal called factors (Gene)
10. Allels – Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traids, they are
slightly different forms of the same gene.[NEET 2022, 2015][NCERT 72]
11. Punnett square – Graphical representation to calculate the probability
of all possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.
• Devloped by a british geneticist, Reginald C. Punnet.
[NEET 2021] [NCERT 73]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 5

12. Monohybrid cross

• Study of inheritance of one character at a time in an organism
• Phenotypic ratio = 3 : 1
• Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
13. Based on his observation on monohybrid crosses mendal proposed two
general rules. These rules are called principles or law of interitance.
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
14. Law of Dominance [NEET 2018,2016] [NCERT 75]
1. Characters are controlled by discreat units called factors.
2. Factors occur in pairs
3. In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominantes &
other recessive.
• Law of Dominance used to explain the expression of only one of the
parental characters in monohybrid cross in F1 & expression of both
in F2.
15. Law of Segregation
• This law is based on the fact that the allels do not show any blending
& both character are recovered as such in the F2 generation.
• The factors or allets of a pair segregate from each other such that
a gamete receive only one of the two factors.
• Law of Dominance have two exceptions
1. Incomplete Dominance
2. Co-dominance
Incomplete Dominance [NEET 2019, 2016, 2012, 2018] [NCERT 76]
• F1 phenotype did not resemble either of the two parents & was in
between the two
• Phenotypic ratio change from 3 : 1 to 1 : 2 : 1
• Phenotypic & Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
• Examples : Flower colour in the dog flower (Snapdragon or
Antirrhinium sps) & Starch grain size [NEET 2018]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 6

16. Co-dominance [NEET 2015, 2018, 2016] [NCERT 77]

• F1 Phenotype resembles both parents [NEET 2013] [NCERT 77]
• Phenotypic & Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
• Eg: AB blood group ( IAIB) [NEET 2013] [NCERT 77]
17. ABO blood group in human Beings [NEET 2020, 2018] [NCERT 77]
• ABO blood group controlled by the gene i.
• Gene i has three alleles IA, IB & i
• IA & IB produce slightly different form of sugar while allels i doesn’t
produce any sugars.
Genetic Basis of Blood Groups in Human population

[NEET 2015] [NCERT 77]

• ABO Blood grouping also provides a good example of multiple alleles
[NEET 2015,2018][NCERT 78]
• Phenotype = 4, Genotypes=6, Alleles = 3 [NEET 2017] [NCERT 77]
• An individual only two alleles can present, multiple alleles can be
found only when population studied are made.
• Pleiotropy : A single gene product may produce more than one
effect
Eg: Starch synthesis in pea seeds [NEET 2016] [NCERT 78]
18. Dihybrid cross
• Study of inheritance of two characters at a time.
• Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1
• Genotypic ratio = 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 7

19. Law of Independent Assortment states that, “when two pairs of traids
are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters in
independent of the other pairs of characters”. [NEET 2022] [NCERT 80]
20. Important formula
• Type of gamete/type of phenotypes = 2n ( n= no.of Heterozygous.)
• Type of genotypes = 3n
21. Test cross : It is used to find out the genotype of F1 individual.
[NEET 2012, 2016] [NCERT 74]
• F1 individual crossed with homozygous recessive parent.
• Test cross ratio : Monhybrid 1:1
Dihybrid 1:1:1:1
• Mendel published his work on inheritance of characters in 1865 but
if remained unrecognished till 1900 due to several reason.
1. Communication was not easy in those day.
2. His concept of genes as stable & discrete unit
3. Use mathematics to explain biological phenomenone
22. In 1900, de vries, correns & Von tschermak independently
rediscovered mendel’s results on the inheritance of characters.
23. Walter sutton & Theodore Boveri noted that behavior of chromosomes
was parallel to the behavior of genes & used chromosomal movement
in 1902.
24. Experimental varification of the chromosomal theory of inheritance
given by Thomas Hunt Morgan & his colleagues.
[NEET 2020] [NCERT 83]
25. Morgan work on fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) due to following
reason
• Grow in simple synthetic medium in lab.
• Life cycle complete in two weeks
• Many type of herediatary variation
26. Linkage & Recombination
• Physical association or linkage of two genes called linkage &
Recombination of describe the generation of non-parental gene
combination. [NEET 2015] [NCERT 83]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 8

• In linkage, the proportion of parental gene combination are much

higher than non-parental type.
• Tighly linked gene shows very low recombination while lossly linked
genes shows higher recombination
27. Alfred sturtevant : Distance betwen genes & mapped their position of
chromosome [NEET 2019] [NCERT 83]
• Linkage 1/Distance b/w genes 1/ Recombination
• Recombination Crossing over
28. Sex determination
• Henking (1891) experiments carried out in insect & named X-Body.
but on investigation by other scientist, conduded that X-Body of
Henking are X-chromosomes.
29. Sex determination in –

• Most Insects (Grass hopper) : XO type – Male heterogametic

(Determine sex of baby) [NEET 2022, 2018] [NCERT 86]
• Birds : ZW type – Female heterogametic (Determine sex of baby)
• It is also evident that in each pregnacy there is always 50% probability
of either a male or a female child.
30. Sex determination in honey bee
• Based on number of sets of chromosomes in individual receives.
• Honey bee colony have –

Queen, worker – Female (Diploid 32 chromosomes)

Drones – Male (16 chromosomes, Haploid)
• Known as haplo-diploid sex-determination system

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 9

Mutation
• Results in alteration of DNA sequences & results in changes in
genotype & phenotype of an organism & leads to variation in DNA
• Mutation are due to loss (Deletions) OR Gain (insertion/
(Duplication) of a segment of DNA result in alteration in
chromosomes.
• Chromosomal alteration result in abnormalities/Aberrations.
• Chromosomal aberrations are commonly oberved in Cancer cells.
Point mutation – due to change in single base pair of DNA
eg – Sickle cell Anaemia.
Frame shift mutation – Deletions or insertions of base pairs of DNA.
31. Pedigree Analysis
• Study of the family history about inheritance of a particular traid
provides an alternative.
• Pedigree analysis provides a strong tool, utilised to trace the
inheritance of a specific traid, abnormality or disease.
32. Symbols used in human pedigree analysis.

: Male

: Female

: Sex unspecified

: Affected Individuals

: Mating

: Mating between relatives

(consanguineous mating)

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 10

33. Colour blindness : sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in

either red or green cone of eye resulting in failure to discriminate between
red & green colour [2022, 2012] [NCERT 89]
• Occurs in about 8 percent of males & only about 0.4 percent of
female. [NEET 2016, 2014] [NCERT 89]
34. Haemophilia : sex-linked recessive disorder, transmission from
unaffected carrier female to some of the male progency
[NEET 2022, 2020, 2016, 2013] [NCERT 90]
• A single protein that is a part of cascade of proteins invelved in the
clothing of blood is affected.
• Possibility of female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare.
• Queen victoria – carrier of the disease.
35. Sickle-cell Anaemia : Autosomal linked recessive disease.
[NEET 2022, 2021, 2020, 2016] [NCERT 90]
• Disease occurs when both partner are heterozygous (carrier)
• Three pair of Alleles
HbAHbA Normal
A S
Hb Hb Carrier

HbSHbS Disease
• Defect is caused by substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by valine
(val) at the six position of beta globin chain of Hb molecules.
• Change takes place from GAG to GUG
• Shape of RBCs changes from Biconcave disc to elongated sickle
shaped due to low oxygen tension.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 11

36. Phenylketonuria : Inborn error of metabolism, Autosomal recessive

traid.
• Affected individual lack the enzyme phenylalanin hydroxylase
(that convert phenylalanine into tyrosin)
• Due to lack of this enzyme phenylalanine  Phenyl pyruvic acid
• Mental retardation, Hair loss & skin pigmentation takes place.
37. Thalassemia : Autosomal linked reccesive blood disease
[NEET 2022, 2020, 2013] [NCERT 91]
• Disease takes place when both partner are carrier
• Defect could due to either delection/Mutation of globin molecule.
• Anaemia is the characteristic of this disease.
• Two types
1. - Thalasemia ( -globin chain affected)

2. - Thalasemia ( -globin chain affected)

• -Thalasemia – 16th chromosomes, controlled by two closely
linked gene. HBA1 & HBA2

• 1th chromosomes, controlled by one linked gene

-Thalasermia – 11
HBB.
• Thalasemia differs from sickle cell anaernia is that thalasemia is
quantitative problem & sickle cell anaemia is qualitative problem of
Haemoglobin molecules. [NEET 2017][NCERT 91]
38. Chromosomal disorders –
• Caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of
one or more chromosomes.
• Aneuploidy : Gain or loss of chromosomes due to failure of
segregation of chromatids.
Down’s syndrome : First described by Langdon down (1866)
• Trisomy of 21th chromosomes [NEET 2016, 2013] [NCERT 92]
• Affected individual shows – Short statured with small round head,
furrrowed tongue, partially open mouth, palm broad with crease.
congential heart disease physical, psychomotor & mental retardation
takes place.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 12

39. Klinefelter’s chromosomes [NEET 2019, 2016] [NCERT 92]

• Additional copy of X-chromosomes (47,XXY)
• Such individual has –
Overall masculine development
Faminine development (Gynacomastia)
Sterile individuals.
40. Turner syndrome [NEET 2019][NCERT 92]
• Absence of one of the X-chromosomes. (45+XO)
• Such female are sterile
• Rudimentary ovary
• Lack of secondary sexual characters.
41. Polygenic inheritance [NEET 2016] [NCERT 85]
• Single traid controlled by three or more genes
• Dark skin colour (Dominant) controled by three genes – AABBCC
• Light skin colour (Recessive) controlled by three genes - aabbcc
• Intermidiate skin coloure also present
• Examples : Human height & Human skin colour.

*******************×*******************×*******************

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 13

• Which page has the maximum

117 = 1 Pages
% QUESTIONS

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 14

MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

1. Nucleic acid: Polymer of Nucleotides eg: DNA & RNA
2. Nitrogen Base + Pentose sugar + Phosphate = Nucleotide
3. Nitrogen Base + Pentose sugar = Nucleoside
4. Nitrogenous bases : Purines (Adenine & Guanine) (NEET-2019) [NCERT 96]

Pyrimidines (Cytocine, Uracil and Thymine)

5. Thymine only present in DNA. Uracil present in RNA at the place of
Thymine.
DNA: Long polymer of deoxribonucleotides.
6. Acidic substance present in nucleus, 1 st identified by Friedrich
Meischer in 1869 & named as Nuclein.
7. In 1953, James Watson & Francis Crick, based on X-ray data
diffraction (produced by Maurice wilkins & Rosolind Franklin)
proposed a very simple & Famous Double Helix model for the structure
of DNA.
8. Chargaff Rule: Ratio between Adenine & Thymine & Guanine & Cytocin
are constant & equals one. For dsDNA.(NEET-2021, 2015) [NCERT 97]
9. Complimentary: If the sequence of base in one strand is known then
the sequence in other strand can be predicted.
10. Salient features of ds DNA
1. Made up of two polynucleotide chain, backbone constituted sugar-
phosphate & base projected inside.
2. Two chains have anti-parallel polarity.
3. Bases in two strands paired through hydrogen bond. A=T & G  C
(NEET-2020) [NCERT 97]
Always a purine comes opposite to pyrimidine (generate appx. uniform
distance between the two strands of the helix)
4. The two chains are coiled in a right-handed fashion.
Pitch of helix = 3.4 nm & roughly 10 bp in each tum.
Distance b/w a bp  0.34 nm.
5. The plane of one base paair stacks over the other in double helix.
(confers stability of the helical structure)

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 15
11. Central Dogma proposed by Francis crick. which states that genetic
information flows from DNA  RNA  Protein.(NEET-2021, 2013) [NCERT 98]

12. In some viruses the flow of information is in reverse direction, that is

from RNA to DNA
13. Another chemical name of Thymine is 5-methyleracil
Packaging of DNA Helix
1. Length of DNA Helix = Total number of base pair X distance b/w two
consecutive bp. (NEET-2022) [NCERT 99]
2. Length of DNA is Typical mammalian cell = 2.2 meters.
(NEET-2020) [NCERT 99]
3. Length of DNA in E.celi = 1.36 mm.
14. In Prokaryotes “Nucleoid” fterm is used at the place of nucleus.
DNA in nucleoid is a organised in large loops held by proteins.
15. In Eukaryotes
Histone : Positively charge & Basic (NEET-2021) [NCERT 99]
DNA : Negatively charge & Acidic
• Histone are rich in Basic amino acid Lysines & Arginines
(NEET-2022, 2021) [NCERT 99]
• Histones are organised to form a unit of eight molecules called
Histone Octamer (H2A, H2B, H3& H4)
• Nucleosome: Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the
positively charged histone octamer. [NEET 2022] [NCERT 99]
• A typical nucleosome contain 200 bp of DNA helix. [NEET 2022]
• Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus
called chromatin. (thread like stained body seen in nucleus)
• Nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as “Beads-on-string” structure
when viewed under microscope.
• Packaging of chromatin at higher level requirs additional set of protein
that refferred to as Non-histone chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
• Loosely packed (Light strain) = Euchromatin (Active)
Densely packed (Dark strains) = Heterochromatin (Inactive)
[NEET 2022] [NCERT -99, 100]

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 16

16. Bacterophage  ×174 = 5386 nucleotides

Bacteriophage lamda = 48502 base pair
Escherichia coli = 4.6×106 base pair
Human (Haploid) = 3.3×109 base pair
Transforming principle (NEET-2014) [NCERT 100]
17. Frederick Griffith (1928). experiments on Streptococus pneumoniae
bacteria
18. Bacteria grown on a culture plate produce
1. Smooth shiny colonies (s) – Mucous (Polysaccharides)
coat (Virulent)
2. Rough colonies (R) (Non-virulent)
19. S strain  injected into mice  Mice die
R strain  injected into mice  Mice live
S strain  injected into mice  Mice live

s strain(Heat killed)
R strain(live)

[Recovered living S bacteria from dead mice]

20. Conclusion: Some transforming principle, transferred from the heat
killed “S” strain, had enabled the “R” strain to synthesise a smooth
polysaccharides coat & become virulent due to transfer of genetic
material.
21. Biochemical nature of genetic material was not defined from his
experiment.
Biochemical characterisation of transforming principle
22. Done by Oswald Avery, colin Mac Leod & Maclyn Mecarty.
23. They purified biochemical nature of protein, DNA & RNA & find that
DNA alone from S bacteria caused R Bacteria to become transformed.
24. Also, protein digesting enzyme (Protease), RNA digesting enzyme
(RNAes) did not affect transformation, so transforming substance are
not protein & RNA.
25. Digestion with DNase did inhibit transformation so, DNA caused the
transformation. They concluded that DNA is the genetic material but
not all biologists were convinced.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 17

Herchey-chase experiment (1952)

26. The unequivacal proot that DNA is the genetic material comes
from this experiment.
27. They worked with viruses that infect bacteria called Bacteriophages.
28. They used E.coli bacteria
29. Viruses grow on medium
 contain radioactive phosphorous (DNA  Radioactive)
 contain radioactive sulphur (Protein  Not radioactive)
30. Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA were
radioactive, indicating that DNA was the material that passed from virus
to bacteria.
31. Steps: Infection  Blending  Centrifugation
32. Protein did not enter the bacteria from viruses.
33. DNA is therefore the genetic material that passed from virus to bacteria
Properties of Genetic material
34. Above experiments proof that DNA is the genetic material but in some
viruses RNA is the genetic material eg: Tobaco mosaic viruses,
QB bacteriophage.
35. Criteria for genetic material (NEET-2016) [NCERT 103]
(i) Should be able to generate its replia (Replication)
(ii) Should be Chemically & structurally stable
(iii)Should provide the scope for slow changes (Mutation) that requires
for evolution.
(iv) Should be able to express itself in the form of “Mendelian
characters”
36. Both the nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) have the ability to direct their
duplications.
37. Genetic material should be stable enough not to change with different
stages of life cycle, age or with change in the physiology of the
organism.
38. Two strands being complementary, if seperated by heating come togather
when appropriate conditions are provided.
39. 2’–OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is reactive group &
make RNA labile & easily degradable.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 18

40. RNA are catalytic & Reactive as compared to DNA (less reactive &
more stable).
41. Both DNA & RNA are able to mutate. RNA being unstable & mutate at
a faster rate.
42. Viruses having RNA genome & having shorter life span mutable & evolve
faster.
43. Among two nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) DNA is the better genetic
material.
44. RNA can directly code for protein synthesis & DNA depends on RNA
for synthesis of protein.
45. For storage of genetic information – DNA & for transmission of
genetic information RNA is better.
46. RNA was the first genetic material & essential for life process such
as metabolism, Translation, splicing evolved around RNA.
47. Semi conservative model for DNA replication was given by Watson &
Crick.
48. DNA replicate semiconservatively was proposed by–
(NEET-2018) [NCERT 104]
1. Mathew Meselson & Franklin stahl (E. Coli) (1958)
2. Taylor & colleagues (Vicia faba) (1958)
Meselson & stahl experiments (NEET-2016) [NCERT 105]
49. Used heavy isotope of (N15) not radioactive.
50. Grew E.coli in NH4Cl medium.
51. DNA centrifugation by CsCl (Distinguse of heavy DNA from normal DNA)

52.

[NEET 2022] [NCERT 105]

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 19
53. E. coli divide in 20 minutes.
Taylor experiments
54. Use of radioactive thymidine
Machinery & Enzymes for Replication
55. Replication in E.coli requires a set of enzyme.
56. Main enzyme for replication is DNA dependent DNA polymerase
(NEET-2016) [NCERT 106]
57. DNA dependent DNA polymerase – Highly efficient enzyme & catalyses
polymerisation in very short time.
58. Replication time in E. coli is 18 minute.
59. Average rate of polymerisation is appox. 2000 bp per second (with
high degree of acuracy)
60. Energetically replication is very expensive process
61. Deoxyribonucleosite triphosphate serve dual purpose.
1. Acts as substrate
2. Provide energy for polymerisation. (NEET-2014) [NCERT 106]
62. DNA dependent DNA polymerase catalyses the polymerisation in only
one direction that is 5 '  3 '
63. One strand (the template with polarity 3 '  5 ' ) replication is continuous
& other (template with polarity 5 '  3 ' ) it is Discontinuous.
(NEET-2017) [NCERT 106]
64. Discontinuous synthesised fragments are jointed by the enzyme DNA
ligase.
65. Replication does not initiate randomly at any place in DNA, a definite
region in E. coli where replication originate called origin of replication.
66. Replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of the cell cycle.
Transcription
67. Process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into
RNA.
68. Principle of complimentarity governs the process of transcription
except Adenosin now forms base pair with uracil instead of
thymine. (NEET-2018) [NCERT 108]
69. In transcription only a segment of DNA & only one of the strands of
DNA is copied into RNA.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 20
70. If both strands copied during transcription them
1. They would code for RNA molecule with different sequences & one
segment of DNA would be coding for two different protein (complicates
genetic information transfer mechinery)
2. Two RNA molecules forms Ds RNA & prevent splicing (Protein
synthesis).
Transcription Unit]
1. A promoter (5’ end)
2. The structural gene
3. A terminator (3’ end)
71. Enzyme for transcription DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
72. This enzyme catalyses the polymerisation in only one direction
5'  3'
73. Polarity 3 '  5 ' reffered to template strand. (NEET-2014) [NCERT 108]
74. Polarity ( 5 '  3 ' ), sequerce same as RNA (except thymine at the
place of uracil). is displace during transcription.
75. Strand which do not code for anything is reffered to as coding strand.
76. Schematic structure of a transcription unit

77. All the reference point while defining a transcription unit is made
with coding strand.
78. Promoter: is a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA
polymeras
79. Terminator: usually defines the end of the process of transcription.
80. Cistron: As a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptides
(NEET-2016) [NCERT 109]
81. Structural gene: Monocistronic (mostly Eukaryotes)
Polycistronic (mostly prokaryotes OR Bacteria)

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 21
82. The gene is Eukaryotes are split.
83. Intron: Also called Intervening sequence, do not appear in mature or
processed RNA
84. The split-gene arrangement further complicates the definition of a gene
in terms of a DNA segment. (NEET-2021) [NCERT 109]
85. Inheritance of a character is also affected by promoter & regulatory
sequences of a structural gene.
Type of RNA & process of transcription:
86. In Bacteria:
• Three major type of RNAs: mRNA, tRNA & rRNA.
• All three RNAs are needed to synthesise a protein in a cell.
• mRNA: Provides template, tRNA– brings amino acid & reads genetic
code & rRNA play structural & catalytic roll during translation.
• Single DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyses transcription of
all types of RNA in bacteria.
• RNA polymerase binds to promoter & initiate transcription.
• Three steps in transcription
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
• It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate & polymerise in
template dependend fashion.
• At terminator region, the nascent RNA falls off, so also RNA
polymerase (terminator)
87. RNA polymerase catalyses all three steps. It associated transiently
with initiation-factor (  ) & terminator factor() to initiate & terminate
the transcription. (NEET-2021) [NCERT 110]
88. In Bacteria, mRNA does not require any processing. Since transcription
& translation take place in same compartment.
89. Transcription & translation can be coupled in Bacteria.
Transcription in Eukaryotes
90. Two additional complexities
1. Three RNA polymerase present in nucleus.
• RNA polymerase I : rRNAs (28s, 18s, 5.8s)(NEET-2021)[NCERT 111]
• RNA polymerase II :mRNA (hnRNA)
• RNA polymerase III :tRNA (5 sr RNA, sn RNA)(NEET-2021)[NCERT 111]
2. Primary transcripts contain both the exon & Intron & are non-
functional.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 22

91. Splicing: Removal of intron & joining of Exon.(NEET-2012) [NCERT 111]

92. hn RNA undergoes two additional processing – capping & Tailing
Capping: Unusual ncleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate) are added
at 5’end of m RNA (NEET-2021) [NCERT 111]
Tailing: Adenylate residus (200–300) are added at 3’–end in
tempelate independent manner.
93. Fully processed hnRNA now called mRNA, transported out of nuclus
for translation.
Genetic code (NEET-2021) [NCERT 111]
Translation led to the proposition of a genetic code that could direct the
sequence of amino acid during the synthesis of proteins.
94. The proposition & deciphering of genetic code were most challenging.
Genetic code given by a Physicist George Gamow, who argued that
only 4 bases & code for 20 amino acid.
95. He suggested that in order to code for all 20 amino acids, the code
should be made up of three nucleotides.
96. More daunting task  codon was triplet.
97. Chemical method developed by Har Gobind khorana was in
strumental in synthesising RNA molecules with defined combinations
of bases (Homopolymers & copolymers).
98. Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free system for protein synthesis finally
helped the code to be deciphered.
99. Severo ochoa enzyme (Polynucleotide phosphorylase) help in
polymerising RNA with defined sequences in template independent
manner.
100. Salient features of genetic code (NEET-2019, 2013) [NCERT 112]
1. Codon is triplet. 61 codons code for amino acid. 3 codons do not
code for any amino acids, functions as stop codon (UAA, UAG,
UGA)
2. One codon codes for only one amino acid  unambiguous &
specific
3. Codon is read in mRNA in a contiguons fashion, no punctuations.
4. The codon is nearly universal
5. AUG has dual functions (Also acts as initiator codon)
(NEET-2016)[NCERT 112]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 23
101. From bacteria to human UUU code for phenylalanine.
102. Insertion or deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame
from the point of insertion or deletion.
103. Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple bases or delete one or
multiple codon, reading frame remains unaltered from that point onwards.
Refferred to as Frame-shift insertion or deletion mutation.
(NEET-2019, 2017) [NCERT 113]
tRNA (Adapter molecule): Given by Francis Crick
104. He postulated the presence of an adapter molecule that would on one
hand read the code & on other hand would bind to specific amino acids.
105. The tRNA, called sRNA (soluble RNA)
106. tRNA has an anticodon loop, an amino acid acceptor end.
107. For initiation, there is another specific tRNA reffered to an initiator tRNA.
108. There is no tRNA for stop codons.
109. Secondary structure of tRNA look like a clover-leaf
110. Acatual structure, the tRNA is compact molecule looks like inverted L.
TRANSLATION
111. Process of polymerisation of amino acids to form a polypeptide.
112. The order & sequence of amino acids are defined by the sequence of
bases in the mRNA.
113. Formation of a peptide bond requires energy (NEET-2022, 2020) [NCERT 114]

114. Charging of tRNA or aminoacylation of tRNA– Aminoacids itself

activated in the presence of ATP & linked to their cognate tRNA.
115. It two charged tRNA are brought close ennough the formation of
peptidebone between them would be favoured energetically.
116. The presence of a catalyst would enhance the rate of peptide bond
formation.
117. Ribosomes in its inactive state consists of two sub unit
– Larger subunits
– Smaller subunits
118. Also some additional sequences that are not translated that is UTR.
(untranslated regions)
119. UTRs present at both 5”–end (before start codon) & 3’–end (after
stop codon required for efficient translation process.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 24

120. Three steps : Initiation, Elongation, Termination

121. Ribosomes moves from codon to codon along the mRNA –
Translocation
122. Translation dictated by DNA & represented by mRNA.
123. Termination: Release factor bind to the stop codon & releasing the
complete polypeptide from the ribosomes.
Regulation of Gene Expression
124. Very broad term that may occur at various levels
125. In Eukaryotes it regulated at several levels.
1. Transcriptional level (Formation of primary transcript)
2. Processing level (Regulation of splicing)
3. Transport of mRNA from nuclus to cytoplasm
4. Translational level
126. The development & differentiation of embryo into adult organism are
results of the coordinated regulation of expression of several sets of
genes.
127. In prokaryotes, control of the rate of transcriptional initiation is the
site for control of gene expression.
128. Lac operon
1. Given by Geneticist, Francois Jacob & a biochemist, Jacque
Monod. (NEET-2018) [NCERT 116]
2. Lac reffers to Lactose (Inducer) (NEET-2016) [NCERT 116]
3. Consists of three structural gene & one regulatory gene
Regulatory gene: “i” gene (inhibitor)
Structural gene :Z-gene code for beta-galactosidase (  -gal)
(NEET-2019) Y -gene code for permease(NEET-2022,2014)
a-gene code for transacetylase [NCERT 116]
129.  -galactosidase responsible for the hydrolysis of the disaccharides,
Lactose into monomeric units Glucose & Galactose.
130. Permease, increase permeability of cell to  -galactosides.
131. All three genes products in lac open are required for metabolism of
lactose.
132. In the absence of Inducer (Lactose) repressor binds to operator region
& prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 25
133. In the presence of Inducer repressor protein inactive, operator gene
Free for transcription & translation process.
134. A very low level of expression of lac operon has to be present in the cell
all time otherwise lactose cannot enter the cells.
135. Glucose or Galactose cannot act as inducer for lac operon.
136. Regulation of lac operon by repressor is refferred to as Negative
regulation (NEET-2015) [NCERT 117]
Lac operon is under control of positive regulation as well.
HGP. (Human Genome Project) : Mega Project.
137. H.G.P. a very ambitious project of sequencing human genome, launched
in 1990 & completed in 2003, it is a 13 year project.
138. Human genome have appx. 3×109 bp & cost of sequencing required
is US $ 3 per bp.
139. Total estimated cost of project would be appx. 9 billion us dollers
140. HGP was closely associated with the rapid development of new area in
biology called Bioinformatics.
Goals of HGP
141. Approx 20,000 – 25,000 genes in human DNA.
142. Determine the sequences of the three billion chemical base pair that
make up human DNA.
143. Store this information in databases.
144. Improve toos for data analysis.
145. Transfer related technique to other sectors (like industries).
146. Adress the ethical, Legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arises
from the project.
• HGP was co-ordinated by US department of energy and National
Institute of Health.
• During early years of HGP, the wellcome trust (U.K.) become a
major partner additional contributions come from Japan, France,
Germany, China and others.
• Many non-human model organisms, such as –
Bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic
nematode), Drosophila (fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), etc.,
have also been sequenced.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 26

Methodologies : Two major approaches –

i. Expressed sequence Tags (EST) [NEET 2019] [NCERT 119]
ii. Sequence Annotaion (SA)
147. Identifying all genes that expressed as RNA – EST.
148. Sequencing the whole set of genome that contains all the coding and
non-coding sequence, and different regions in the sequence with
functions. – SA. [NEET-2022] [NCERT 119]
149. Commonly used host – Bacteria and Yeast.
150. Vectors are – BAC (Bacterial artificial chromosomes)
– YAC (Yeast artificial chromosomes)
151. Frederick Sanger, credited for developing method for determination of
amino acid sequence in proteins and Also the fragments were sequenced
using automated DNA sequences.
152. The sequence of chromosomes 1 was completed only in May 2006.
Salient Features of Human Genome
153. Human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.
154. Average gene consists of 3000 bases. Largest known human gene
Dystrophin (2.4 million bases)
155. Total number of genes is estimated at 30,000 – much lower than previous
estimates of 80,000 to 1,40,000 genes.
156. All most all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all peoples.
157. Functions are unknown for over 50 per cent discovered genes.
158. Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins.
159. Repeated sequences make up very large portionof human genome.
160. Chromosome 1 has most gene (2968) and Y has the fewest (231)
161. Scientist have identified about 1.4 million locations where single base
DNA differences (SNPs – Single Nucleotides Polymorphism) occurs
in human.
• DNA Fingerprinting : Technique developed by Alec Jeffreys.
162. Involves identifying differences in some specific region of DNA sequence
called as Repetitive DNA. (a small streteched of DNA repeated many
times).
163. Repetitive DNA seperated from bulk genomic DNA as different peaks
during density gradient centrifugation.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 27
164. The bulk DNA forms a major peak and other small peaks are reffered to
as satellite DNA.
165. Satellite DNA classified into many categories based on
• Base composition (A : T rich or G : C rich)
• Length of segment.
• Number of repetitive units.
166. Satellite DNA
• Micro-satellite
• Mini-satellite
167. These sequences normaly do not code for any proteins but they form a
large protein of human genome and show high degree of polymorphism
and forms basis of DNA fingerprinting. [NEET 2015] [NCERT 121]
168. DNA from every tissue (like blood, hair follicles, skin, Bone, saliva,
Sperm etc) from an individual show the same degree of polymorphism.
(Useful in identification in forensic applications).
169. Polymorphisms are inheritable from parents to children.
[NEET-2022] [NCERT 122]
170. DNA fingerprinting is the basis of paternity testing, in case of
disputes.
171. Allelic frequency greater than 0.01.
172. Alec Jeffreys used a satellite DNA as probe that shows very high
degree of polymorphism, called VNTR (Variable number of Tandem
repeats) [NEET 2018] [NCERT 122]
173. Involved southern blot hybridisation using radiolabelled VNTR as a
probe. It include –
1. Isolation of DNA
2. Digestion of DNA by restricted endonucleases.
3. Seperation of DNA fragments by electrophorosis.
4. Transferring (Blotting) of seperated DNA fragments to synthetic
membrane such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
5. Hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe.
6. Detection of hybrid DNA fragments by autoradiography.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 28

174. The VNTR belongs to a class of satellite DNA (mini-satellite)

175. The numbers of repeat show very high degree of polymorphism.
176. Size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20 kb.
177. After hybridisation with VNTR probe, the autoradiogram gives many
band of different sizes. (gives characteristic pattern of individual DNA)
178. This bands differs from individual to individual in a population except :
in case of monozygotic twins.

****************×****************×****************

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 29

• Which page has the maximum

131, 136 = 2 Pages
35.1 % QUESTIONS

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 30

EVOLUTION
1. Evolutionary Biology is the study of histroy of life forms on earth.
2. Stellar distances measured in light years.
3. Origin of universe – almost 20 billion years old.
4. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe.
5. Galaxies contain stars & clouds of gases & dust.
6. Big Bang theory explain the origin of universe.
7. Origin of earth about 4.5 billion years back.
8. Origin of life almost 4 billion years back.
9. Theory of panspermia – unit of life called spores were transfered to
different plantes including earth.
10. Theory of spontaneous generation – Life came out of decaying &
rotting matter like straw & mud etc.
11. Louis Pasteur experiment : Life comes only from pre-existing life.
• Uses Pre-sterilised flasks.
• Dismissed spontaneous generation
• This did not answer how the first life form came on earth.
12. Oparin of Russia & Haldane of England proposed that first form of
life could have come from pre-existing, non-living organic molecules.
and formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution.
13. Conditions on earth – High temperature, volcanic stroms, reducing
atomosphere, containing CH4, NH2 and water vapour (H2O)
14. S.L. Miller (American scientist),created similar conditions in laboratory.
15. He created Electric discharge, close flask containing CH4,H2, NH3, &
water vapour at 800oC. He observed formation of amino acids.
[NEET 2020] [NCERT-127]
16. Theory of Special creation : Three cannotations
1. All living organisms that wee see today were created as such
2. Diversity was always the same since creation & will be same in future.
3. Earth is about 4000 years old.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 31

17. Darwin (Sail ship : H.M.S. Beagle) conduded that existing living form
share similarties to varying degree not only among them selves but
also the life forms that existed millions of years ago.
[NEET 2020][NCERT-128]
18. Any population has built in variation in characteristics.
19. Acc. of Darwin, ultimately & only to reproductive fitness. These who
better fit in an enviroment, leave more progeny than others & hence
survive & selected by nature. (Natural Selection)
20. Alfred Wallace, a naturalist, worked in Malay Archepelago
21. The geographical history of earth closely correlated with biological history
of earth.
22. Earth is very old, not thousand of years old but billions of years old.
23. Fossils – Remained of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks.
24. Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms who
probably died during the formation of particular sediment.
25. Study of fossils – Palentology
26. Divergent & Convergent evolutions –
Divergent evolution Convergent evolution
[NEET 2021] [NCERT-130] [NEET 2016,2021] [NCERT-131]
• Same structure developed • They are not anatomically similar
along different direction due Structure but they performs similar
to adaptation to different needs. functions.
• Structurs are Homologus. • Structurs are Analogous.[NEET-2022]
• Homology indicates • Different structures evolving for the
common ancestry same function & hence having
[NEET-2022] similarity
• Same Anatomical structure
but different function
Examples – Examples
1. Pattern of bone of forlimbs 1. Eye of octopus & Mammals
of mammals 2. Flippers of penguins & Dolphins[2022]
2. Vertebrates heart 3. Sweet potato & potato
3. Vertebrates Brain [NEET 2020,2013,2012] [NCERT-131]
4. Thorn of Baugainvillea &
Tendril of cucurbita
[NEET 2022, 2018,2016,2014,2012] [NCERT-130]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 32

27. Evolution by natural selection comes from England.

[NEET 2015] [NCERT-131]
1. Before industrialisation (1850s) – more white wings moths on
tree than dark-winged or melanic moths.
2. After industrialisation (1920) – more dark – winged moths in the
same area than white winged moths.
28. During post industrialisation period, the tree tranks became dark due to
industrial smoke & soots, in thin condition white winged moth does not
survie due to predators.
29. Lichens known as pollution indicators, they will not grow in polluted
area
30. Area where industrisation did not occurs (Rural area) count of melanic
moths was low.
31. In a mixed population, those that can better-adapt, survive & increase in
population size.
32. Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc has only resulted in selection
of resistant varieties in much lesser time scale (Evolution by
Anthropogenic Action) Eg: Antibiotics OR Drugs against Eukaryotic
organims. [NEET 2020,2021] [NCERT-132]
33. Evolution is not a direct process, it is a stochastic process.
34. Adaptive Radiation [NEET 2021] [NCERT-133]
• Process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from a point & literally radiating to other geographical area.
[NEET 2012] [NCERT-133]
• Examples – Darwin finches & Australian narsupials.
35. Darwin Finches : Original seed-eating features change into
insectivorous & vegetarian forms. [NEET 2013] [NCERT-133]
36. When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occured in an
isolated geopraphical area – Convergent evolution
37. Convergent evolution of Australian Marupials & placental mammals.
Placental mammals Australian marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat (Anteater)
Mouse Marsupial mosuse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tigercat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 33

38. Branching descent & natural selection are two key concepts of
Darwinian theory of evolution
39. French naturalist lamark – use & disuse of organs.
eg: Neck of Giraffes
40. Thomas Malthus work on populations influenced Darwin.
41. Natural resources are limited, populations are stable in size except :
For seasonal fluctuation.
42. Hugo de Vries (Twentieeth century) based on his work evening
primrose gives idea of mutation
43. According to Darwin, Mutation are directional, small & Gradual but
Acc. to Hugo de vries, Mutation are Random & directionless
[NEET 2018,2012] [NCERT-135]
44. De Vries believed that mutation caused Speciation & hence called
Saltation (Single step & large mutation) [NEET 2019] [NCERT-135]
Hardly-Weinberg principle

45. In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurance of
alleles of a gene or a locus. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed
& even remain the same through generations.

46. Allele frequncies in a population are stable & constant from generation
to generation.
47. Gene Pool : Total genes & their alleles in a population.
48. Genetic equilibrium : Gene pool remains constant
49. Sum total of all the allelic frequency is one.
50. p2+2pq+q2=1, Binomial expansion of (P+q)2.[NEET 2019,2014] [NCERT-137]
Here, P2 = Homozygous dominant
q2 = Homozygous recessive
Pq= Heterozygous [NEET 2016] [NCERT-137]
51. When frequency differs from expected values, indicates the extent of
evolutionary change.
52. Disturbance in genetic equilibrium or Hardy-weinberg equilibrium could
be interpreted as resulting in evolution.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 34

53. Five factors that affect Hardy-weinberg equilibrium

1. Gene migration or gene flow [NEET 2021,2013] [NCERT-137]
2. Genetic drift
3. Genetic recombination
4. Mutation
5. Natural selection
54. Gene flow : If gene migration happens multiple times.
55. Genetic drift : If same change occurs by chance.
[NEET 2016,2013] [NCERT-137]
56. Founder effect : The change in allelic frequency is so different in the
new sample of population that they become a different species. The
original drifted population become founders.
57. Natural selection can lead to –[NEET 2022, 2019,2017] [NCERT-137]
Stabilisation (In which more individuals aquare mean character value)
Directional (more individual aquares other than mean character value)
Disruptive (more individuals aquare peripheral character value) at both
ends of the distribution curve)
58. About 2000 million year ago (mya) the first cellular form of life
appeared on earth.
59. A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 35

60. Innertebrates formed & Active = 200 mya

61. Jawless fishes probably evolved = 350 mya

62. Sea weeds & few plants existed = 320 mya
63. Fish with stout & strong fins could move on land & go back in water =
350 mya

64. First organism invaded land are plants.

65. In 1938, a fish caught in south Africa (Coelacanth) was throught to be
extinct, called lobefins evolved into first amphibians.

66. They (Coelacanth) were ancestors of modern day frogs & salamanders.
67. Amphibians evolved into reptiles (lay thick shelled eggs)

68. In 200 mya, reptiles of different shapes & size dominated on earth.
69. Gaint ferns (Pleridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.
70. Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like
reptiles probably 200 mya (Ichthyosaurs)

71. Tyrannoscurus rex ( Biggest reptiles) was about 20 feet in height &
had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.
72. Dianosours suddenly disappeared from the earth = 65 mya

73. First mammals – shrews (small sized fossils)

74. Due to continental drift, when south america joined north America
pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competition
from any other mammals.
75. Some mammals live wholly in water – whales, dolphins, seals , sea
cows.

76. Most successful story is the evolution of man with language skills &
self-consciousness. [NEET 2012] [NCERT-140]

Origin & Evolution of man

77. Primates (Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus) existed about 15 mya.
78. Ramapithecus was more man-like & dryopithecus was more ape-like
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 36

79. Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia &
Tanzania.

80. Man-like primates walked in eastern africa about 3-4 mya, not taller
than 4 feet but walked up right.
81. Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands = 2 mya

82. Austrlopithecines hunted with stone weapons & eat fruits.

83. First human-like beings = Homo habilis, Brain capacities 650-800 cc
they did not eat meat [NEET 2019,2015] [NCERT-140]

84. Homo erectus,Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 .about 1.5 mya brain
capacities around 900cc, they eat meat [NEET 2019] [NCERT-140]

85. Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east &
central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 year back. They used hides to
protect their body & buried their dead.

[NEET 2012,2019,2016] [NCERT-14]

86. Homo sapiens arose in Africa, ice age 75000-10,000 year ago, modern
homo sapiens arose.

87. Pre-historic cave art developed around 18000 year ago.

88. Agriculture came around 10,000 year back & human seltlement started
89. One such cave paintings by pre-historic human can be seen at Bhimbetka
rock shelter in Raisen district Madhya Pradish.

****************×****************×****************

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 37

:: IMPORTANT NOTES ::

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 38

TEST FRANCHISES

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 39

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 40

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE