Definitions

Nervous system
1. Spinal cord is the nervous tissue which runs from the base of the brain all the way back.
2. Spinal nerves are nerves which arise from the spinal cord.
3. Cranial nerves are nerves which arise from the brain.
4. Reflex action is an automatic and rapid response to a stimuli.
5. Reflex arc is the pathway taken by a nerve impulse during a reflex action.
6. Brain is the primary integration and control centre of the body.
7. Corpus collasum is a thick band of nerve fibres which connects the right to the left hemisphere.
8. Homunculus is a model which illustrate graphically the sensory and motor maps.
9. Hypothalamus is the main co-ordination and control centre for the automatic NS.
10. Receptors are highly specialised cells which are able to receive stimuli from the environment.
11. Neurons are the conducting cells of the nervous system found between the receptors and effectors.
12. Myelinated sheath is a protective covering that surrounds the axons.
13. Membrane potential is the difference in the electric charge which exists across the cell membrane of all cells
14. Action potential is a sudden and rapid reversal in potential difference across a portion of the plasma
membrane.
15. Refractory period is the period of in excitability that follows the action potential.
16. Absolute refractory period is the period of time during when a 2nd stimulus will not cause a new action
potential in the same region.
17. Relative refractory period is the interval which the 2nd action potential can be produced but only if the
stimulus is considerably greater than the threshold level.
18. Presynaptic neuron is the neuron along which the action potential is travelling.
19. Postsynaptic neuron is the neuron receiving the signal on the other side of the synapse.
20. Synapse is the point at which a nervous impulse passes from one neuron to another.
21. Neurotransmitters are small molecules which are used for the transmission of the impulse across the synaptic
cleft.
22. Neuroreceptors are chemically gated channels that have specific binding site for the neurotransmitter.
23. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that crosses the synapse between a motor neuron and an effector cell.
24. Hyperpolarization is an inhibitory response known as inhibitory postsynaptic potential.
25. Spatial summation is a summation when 2 or more excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) arrive at the
same time but at different points on the same postsynaptic neuron.
26. Temporal summation is a summation when 2 or more EPSP arrive in rapid succession at the same point on a
postsynaptic neuron.
27. Gap junction is a type of cell membrane modification in which connexon proteins from both membranes joins
together to bind adjacent cell together.
28. Sarcolemma is the fine transparent tubular sheath which envelops the fibres of skeletal muscles.

Biochemistry
1. Glycosidic bond is a covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a condensation reaction.
2. Ester bond is a covalent bond formed by a condensation reaction between the OH group of a COOH & alcohol.
3. Peptide bond is a covalent bond formed when 2 amino acids joins together in a condensation reaction.
4. Polypeptide is a polymer made of many amino acids joined together by a peptide bond.
5. Globular protein is a protein with a spherical shape that is soluble in water.
6. Prosthetic group is a non-protein component that is necessary for the protein to carry out its function.
7. Fibrous protein is a very long, strong & insoluble protein which often has a structural role in the organism.
8. Catalyst is a chemical that speeds up the rate of reaction and remains unchanged and reusable at the end of
the reaction.
9. Isoenzymes/isozymes are different enzymes that catalyse the same reaction.
10. Activation energy is the energy required to start a reaction.
11. Enzymes are biological catalyst that speeds up reactions without being depleted in the process.
12.Intracellular enzymes are enzymes that work within the cell.
13.Co-factors are molecules which are not proteins but helps other enzymes to function
14.Chaperone proteins are proteins which help other proteins to be folded.

Water
1. Dipole is when in the water, oxygen is slightly negative and H2 is slightly positive but overall the water
molecule is neutral.
2. Cohesion is when H2O molecule stick to other water molecules by H bonding
3. Adhesion is when H2O molecule stick to other polar molecules by H bonding
4. High specific heat capacity is the amount of heat in joules required to raise temperature of 1Kg of water by
1oC
5. High heat of vapourization is defined as the energy needed for water to evaporate due to H bonding
6. High heat of fusion is defined as the measure of heat energy to melt a solid.

Virus
1. Virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can only obligate acellular parasites that can only multiply within
living cells.
2. Virion is the extracellular inactive phase of a virus
3. Capsid is a protective coat of protein surrounding the core, protecting the vital genetic material.
4. Retrovirus is an RNA virus that can convert its RNA into a DNA copy by using reverse transcriptase.
5. Bacteriophage is a virus which attacks bacteria eg: T4 bacteriophage attacks bacterium E.coli
6. Vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but spreads infection by conveying pathogens from 1
host to another.

DNA replication
1. Okazaki fragments are short sequence of DNA nucleotides which are synthesized discontinuously and later
linked together by enzyme DNA ligase to create the lagging strand.
2. Nucleotide is a molecule that is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphate group and N2 organic base.

Protein Synthesis
1. Mutation is a change in a genetic sequence.
2. Gene mutation are changes to the base sequence or quantity of DNA within a gene or section of DNA
3. Chromosome mutations are changes to the structure or number of whole chromosome.
4. Mutagen is a chemical, physical or biological agents that causes mutations.
5. Genetic code is a triplet codon, degenerated, non-overlapping and universal code.
6. Transcription is a molecule of mRNA which is synthesized according to the instructions
7. Translation is when a polypeptide chain is synthesized according to the instructions on the mRNA
8. Helicase is an enzyme which splits the complementary bases by breaking their hydrogen bonds.
9. Intron is an mRNA sequence which doesn’t code for any information
10. Exon is an mRNA sequence which codes for any information
11. Addition mutation is a mutation where new bases are added to the mRNA molecule changing the number of
DNA bases in a gene resulting in a protein which is non-functional.
12.Deletion mutation is a mutation where bases are deleted from mRNA therefore one is removing the pieces of
DNA
13. Inversion mutation is a mutation where nucleotides are inverted resulting in a change in 1 or more amino
acid
14.Substitution mutation is a mutation where there is a replacement of a single nucleotide by another altering
the DNA sequence permanently resulting in a protein that may function or may not.
15. Synonymous mutation is a mutation which does not alter the polypeptide product of the gene
16. Non-synonymous mutation is a mutation which leads to an alternation in the encoded polypeptide.
17. Operon is a length of DNA consisting of 1 or more regulatory gene or 1 or more structural gene.
18.Operon is a region of DNA that codes for a series of functionally related genes under the control of the same
promoter.
19.Promoter is a DNA sequence that define where transcription of a gene by RNA polymerase begins.

Stimulus
1. Stimuli are changes in the external and internal environment of the organism
2. Sensitivity is the ability to detect changes & to respond to such changes.
3. Tropism is a growth response by a plant towards or away from direction of a given stimuli
4. Positive tropic response is when growth is towards the stimulus
5. Negative tropic response is when growth is away from the stimulus.
6. Phototropism is plant movement in response to the direction of light.
7. Plant growth substance is an organic compound that modifies or control 1 or more physiological change.
8. Auxins are a group of structurally similar plant growth substance that play an important role in the co-
ordination of many growth and behavioral responses in a plant life cycle.
9. Phototropins are a type of flavoproteins containing Flavin as a prosthetic group.

Hormonal control
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment through a specific mechanism
2. Negative Feedback is the body’s mechanism for reversing a change so that it return back to the optimum
3. Positive Feedback is a change which leads to events which increase the change even further from the set
point
4. Gland is a structure which secretes specific chemicals.
5. Hormones is a regulatory chemical that is secreted into the body by an endocrine gland.
6. Exocrine gland is a gland that secretes a non-hormone product into a duct
7. Endocrine gland is a gland that secrete hormones directly into the blood
8. Local hormones do not enter the blood stream and exert a local effect
9. Autocrine hormone acts on the same cell that releases them
10.Paracrine hormone acts on cell near the one that released them
11. Tropic Hormone is one which stimulates other endocrine glands to release their hormones.

Eye
1. Energy transducer is one which transforms 1 mode of energy into another.
2. Visual acuity is the ability do distinguish 2 or more stimuli of equal intensity as separate stimuli
3. Bleaching is the process where light stimulation causes rhodopsin to break down into retinal and opsin.
Liver
1. Hepatocytes are cuboidal epithelial cells that line the sinusoids making up the majority of the cells in the liver
2. Sinusoids are blood filled spaces relatively wide so blood flows slowly from hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein to the hepatic vein past the hepatocytes
3. Bile canaliculi are small canals which carry bile to the branches of the bile duct
4. Kupffer cells are phagocytic cells and patrol the sinusoids.
5. Urea is a soluble excretory product formed through the Ornithine cycle.
6. Ornithine cycle is a cyclic of reactions through which urea is formed.
7. Emulsification is the process to reduce the surface tension of fat globules to fat droplets to increase their total
Surface area.

Tissues
1. Cell is the basic functional unit of life
2. Tissue is a group of cells of common origin that have the same structure and have similar functions.
3. Epithelium is a tissue composed of cells that line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body
4. Cartilage is a firm, flexible tissue that does not stretch
5. Bone is a firmer extra cellular matrix which provides structural support for the body.
6. Organ is a structure that serves a specialised function and consist of several tissues
7. Meristematic tissue is a tissue containing undifferentiated cells capable for cell division
8. Permanent tissue are mature cells, specialised and incapable for cell division
Ecology
1. Ecology is the study of relationships of organisms with each other and with their environment.
2. Population is a group of organisms belonging to the same species living in the same area at the same time and
isolated from other such areas.
3. Community is a group of individuals of different species living in the same area interacting with each other.
4. Ecosystem is an ecological system consisting of a community of organisms interacting together with their
physical and chemical environment.
5. Biotic factors are the living components of the ecosystem
6. Abiotic factors are the non-living components of the ecosystem
7. Habitat is a place where an organism or a community of organisms lives including biotic and abiotic factors.
8. Niche is the role of an organism having in the community
9. Ecological species are a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources called a niche in the
environment
10. Biotic potential is the maximum rate at which the population could increase under ideal conditions.
11.Environmental resistance is the sum total of all the conditions and factors surrounding the population that
don’t allow it to grow as much as it is capable of.
12. Carrying capacity is the max number of individuals of a population which the resources in a given area can
support.
13. Population density is the number of individuals per unit area
14. Population frequency is the number of samples in which the species occurs
15. Density dependent factors are factors which increase in population density
16. Density independent factors are unrelated to density of population
17. Predation is the interaction between species in which one species uses another species as food
18. Symbiosis is the living together of 2 or more species in a prolonged and intimate ecological relationship.
19. Parasitism is a close interaction between 2 organisms of different species where an organism is benefitting by
harming the host.
20. Mutualism is the interspecific symbiotic interaction in which both organism are benefitting
21. Commensalism is an interspecific symbiotic association whereby 1 organism is benefitting while the other is
unaffected.
22. Amensalism is a form of symbiotic interaction between 2 species where 1 is being harmed and the other is
not benefitting.
23. Allelopathy is a form of Amensalism in plants.
24. Fundamental niche is the niche a population of a species has in the absence of competition from the other
species.
25. Realised niche is the niche a population of a species has in the presence of a competitor species.
26. Niche breadth is the range of a factor over which a species is found
27. Specialist are species which have a narrow niche.
28. Generalist are species with a broad niche
29. Ecological succession is the orderly process of change over time in a community
30. Pioneer species are the 1st species that establishes itself on previously uncolonized substrates
31. Climax community is a community that stabilizes itself following a successional series of communities.
32. Sere is the entire sequence of ecological communities successively occupying an area from the initial stage to
the climax.
33. A food chain is a sequence of organism within an ecosystem in which each is the food of the next member of
the sequence.
34. A food web is a diagram which shows the way in which all the different species of a community depend on
each other for food.
35. Biomass is the total quantity or weight of organism in a given area or volume
36. Primary production is the rate at which a primary producer converts sunlight into living material/biomass.
37. Gross primary production (GPP) – the total amount of energy converted to glucose (assimilated) by
photosynthesis.
38. Net primary production (NPP) – the energy actually stored as biomass.

Classification
1. Exoskeleton is an addition of layer of wax from special glands in the epidermis.
2. Metamorphosis is the substantial change that occurs between 1 developmental stage and another
3. Insect is an arthropod having 3 tagmata as well as 3 pairs of legs and usually 1 or2 pairs of wings emerging
from the thorax
4. A vertebrate is defined as an animal having a vertebral column, pectoral & pelvic girdles, jaws, cranium, sense
organs including paired eyes, ears & olfactory organs and a well-developed closed circulatory system.
5. Biological species are 2 organisms that are able to reproduce naturally to produce fertile offsprings
Or
Biological species is the lowest rank of hierarchy

Gene Technology
1. Splicing is the process in which introns are removed from pre-mRNA and the exons are joined together to
form mature mRNA.
2. Post transcriptional modification is when the gene expression is regulated after transcription but before
translation.
3. PCR is a method of amplifying DNA by artificial replication in vitro.
4. Electrophoresis is the process of separating out DNA fragments according to their size.
5. DNA probes are short sections of DNA that are complementary to a known DNA sequence.
6. DNA profiling or Genetic fingerprinting is a method used to produce a specific pattern of DNA bands from an
individual genome.
7. DNA ligase is used to combine DNA fragments with plasmid to form recombinant DNA.
8. Restriction Endonucleases is a type of enzyme that cut up DNA at a specific sequence of bases called recognition sites.

Locomotion
1. Locomotion is the movement of an organism from place to place.
2. Tendon is a cord of dense connective tissue consisting of collagen fibres used for attachment of muscles to
bones.
3. Z line is a line running through the middle of each band.
4. Sarcomere is the distance from 1 Z line to the other.
5. Phosphocreatine is an energy reserve which supplies energy under anaerobic conditions.
6. Skeleton is hard internal or external framework which supports the softer part of an organism.
7. Cartilage is firm, flexible material which provide support to great weight
8. Bipedalism is the transition from walking on 4 legs to walking on 2 legs

Genetics
1. Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes which have the same length and carry the same gene
sequence.
2. Gene is a segment of DNA which control a specific trait.
3. Allele is a variant of a particular gene.
4. Genome is defined as the genetic complement of an organism or of an individual cells.
5. Allele frequency is the measurement of the proportion of individuals in a population carrying a particular
allele.
6. Locus is the location of a gene on a chromosome
7. Genotype is defined as the genetic constitution of an organism with respect to the alleles under consideration
8. Phenotype is defined as observable characteristic of an individual.
9. Heterozygous is defined as the diploid conditions in which the allele at a given locus are different.
10. Homozygous is defined as the diploid conditions in which the allele at a given locus are the same.
11. Sex chromosome are the sex chromosome that determine the sex rather than other body characteristic.
12. Autosome is a chromosome that is not the sex chromosome.
13. Autosomal Linkage is the association of gene loci on the same autosomal chromosome.
14. Sex linked gene is on e that is found on a part of the X chromosome not matched by the Y and therefore not
found on the Y chromosome.
15. Epistasis is when 1 gene inhibits the action of another.

Transport in Animals
1. Cardiac muscle is a specialised type of muscle found in the walls of the heart.
2. Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur within 1 full beat of the heart.
3. Myogenic muscle is a muscle which can initiate its own contractions
4. Fibrillation is the uncontrolled contraction of the muscle in the heart
5. Sinoatrial node is a small patch of tissue that generate electrical impulses.
6. Clotting cascade is a series of enzyme controlled reactions in the blood that lead to the formation of blood
clot
7. Blood is a connective tissue composed of fluid matrix known as plasma
8. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of arteries and arterioles
9. Vasodilation is the widening of the arteries and arterioles.

Gas exchange
1. Gas exchange is the exchange of oxygen and CO2 between the organism and its environment
2. Respiratory surface is the exact region where gas exchange takes place
3. Trachea system is a system which allows air to diffuse directly into the cells without the need of
transportation of blood
4. Lung capacity is the max air which can be held in the 2 lungs at any given time
5. Vital capacity is the max amount of air that can be exchange during breathing in and out
6. Tidal volume is the volume of air moved during normal quiet breathing
7. Inspiratory reserve volume is the air taken in when breathing deeply
8. Expiratory reserve volume is the max air that can be expelled with a deep breath out
9. Residual volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful expiration
10. Bohr shift is a shift to the right of the Oxygen dissociation curve brought about by the production of carbonic
acid in RBC.
11. Fick’s Law states that the rate of diffusion is equal to the surface area of the membrane multiplied by the
diffusion across the membrane, divided by the thickness of the membrane.

Cell Membranes
1. Integral/Intrinsic proteins are proteins embedded in the plasma membrane
2. Peripheral/Extrinsic proteins are proteins extended across the lipid bilayer
3. Osmosis is the movement of water by diffusion across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high
water potential to a region of a low water potential.
4. Osmotic pressure is the force needed to stop osmotic flow
5. Aquaporins are specialised water channels which select water molecules in & out of the cell while preventing
the entry and exit of ions.
6. Simple diffusion is the movement of substances from a high concentration to a low concentration along a fully
permeable membrane until equilibrium is reached.
7. Facilitated diffusion is the process of spontaneous passive transport of molecules & ions across a biological
membrane via a specific transmembrane/integral proteins
8. Active Transport is the movement of a substance from a low to a high concentration against a concentration
gradient.
9. Uniport is the movement of 1 solute across the plasma membrane in one direction
10. Symport is the movement of 2 solutes across the plasma membrane in one direction
11. Antiport is the movement of 2 solutes across the plasma membrane in opposite direction.
12.Primary active transport the transport of molecules against a concentration gradient by the use of energy
from ATP
13.Secondary active transport is the transport of 2 different molecules across a transport membrane using
energy in other forms than ATP.
14.Exocytosis is involved in the elimination of waste and secretion of contents in Golgi into the external
environment.
15.Endocytosis is involved in the up taking of substances from the external environment

Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is used to make organic molecules from inorganic
molecules.
2. Carbon fixation is a process by which CO2 is converted into sugars
3. Photolysis is the process in which light energy is used to break the bonds between hydrogen and oxygen
atoms in water.
4. Photosynthetic pigments are pigment molecules that can absorb specific wavelength of light and trap the
energy associated with light.
5. Photophosphorylation is the process in which ATP is synthesized in the presence of light.
6. Absorption spectrum is a graph showing the amount of light absorbed by a pigment as a function of the
wavelength.
7. Action spectrum is a graph showing the late of photosynthesis as a function of the wavelength

Immunity
1. Phagocytosis is the process by which a phagocyte ingest a foreign body by endocytosis
2. Immunoglobulin is any class of protein present in the serum and cells of the immune system which function as
antibody.
3. Antibody is a blood protein produced in response of or act against a specific antigen
4. Antigen is a molecule which can cause antibody formation.
5. Non-specific defence mechanisms are inherited mechanisms that protect the body from many different
pathogens
6. Specific defense mechanisms are adaptive mechanism that protect against specific targets
7. B cell activation is when an antigen binds and the B cell is activated making copies of itself.
8. T cells are the effectors of the cellular immune response.
9. Passive Immunity is when antibodies from 1 individual are passed into another
10. Active immunity is the result of an infection
11. Natural Active Immunity is when the body manufactures its own antibodies when exposed to an infectious
agent
12. Natural Passive Immunity is when antibodies from the mothers cross the placenta and enter her foetus
13. Artificial Active Immunity is when taking a vaccination consisting of a small amount of antigen
14. Artificial Passive Immunity is when antibodies are formed in 1 individual & and are extracted and injected
into the blood of another individual which may or may not be of the same species.

Reproduction
1. Spermatogenesis is the process where sperms are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
2. Menstrual cycle is when the endometrium is shed from the uterus through the cervix and vagina in a
bleeding called menstruation.
3. Fertilisation is the process where 2 haploid gametes of different gender (sperm cell and oocyte) fuse
together forming a diploid zygote.
4. Placenta is a mammalian organ composed chorionic villi (from foetus) projecting into blood space found in
the endometrium from the mother to the uterus.
5. Colostrum is a yellowish fluid containing antibodies providing immunity against infection.
6. Asexual Reproduction is when organisms produce offsprings which are genetically identical to each other
and to their parents.
7. Reproduction is the production of a new generation of individuals of the same species
8. Fission is the division of the cell in 2 or more daughter cells identical to their parent.
9. Sexual Reproduction is the production of offsprings by the fusion of 2 gametes to form a diploid zygote
which develops into a mature organism.
Respiration
1. Respiration is the process that occurs in living cells and release energy stored in organic molecules such as
glucose.
2. ATP is an energy carrier molecule that contains energy in a readily available form.
3. Anabolic reaction is a reaction which involves synthesizing large molecules from smaller molecules
4. Catabolic reaction is a reaction which involves the breaking down of large molecules to form smaller
molecules
5. Glycolysis is the process in which glucose (6C) is oxidized into a 3C compound known as pyruvate.
6. Link reaction is the reaction involved in the conversion of pyruvate to a 2 C acetyl group taking place in the
mitochondrial matrix.
7. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of aerobic respiration and occurs in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
8. Chemiosmotic potential can be defined as a source of potential energy for ATP synthesis.
9. Respiratory quotient is a ration of the volume of CO2 produced to the amount of O2 used up during
respiration in a given time.

Transport in Plants
1. Apoplast pathway is the movement of water through cell walls and extracellular spaces and carries solutes
with it. Movement is rapid and unregulated
2. Symplast pathway is the movement of water by osmosis and solutes travel from cell to cell via the
plasmodesmata.
3. Transmembrane pathway is when substances move through cell membrane, across the cell walls & across
the membrane of the vacuole.
 4. Transpiration is the evaporation of water at the stomata in the leaves.
5. Translocation refers to the transport of the products of photosynthesis by phloem to the rest of the plant;
it occurs along the vertical axis of the plant or along its radial axis
6. Sugar source is a plant organ where sugars are produced by photosynthesis or by the breakdown of
starches
7. Sugar sink is an organ where sugars are stored or used.
8. Mesophytes are plants which are adapted to a habitat with adequate water. Eg: bulbs, rhizomes
9. Xerophytes are plants which are adapted to a dry habitat. Eg: cacti, spines
10. Halophytes are plants which are adapted to a salty habitat.
11. Hydrophytes are plants which are adapted to a large supply of water that grow wholly or partly
submerged in water. Eg: water lilies, duckweed

Mosses & Ferns

1. Embryophyta is when the embryo is retained within parental tissue eg: seeds
2. Homosporous are plants that produce bisexual gametophyte
3. Heterosporous are plants that produce separate male and female gametophyte
4. Bryophyta is small, leafy, flat plants that grow in moist locomotion
5. Paraphysis is a filament which arises between antheridia to trap water and so create a moist env for the
releasing of sperms
6. Sori are pinnulus in structure which underneath spores are produced.
7. Sorus is a group of sporangia
Thermoregulation
1. Thermoregulation is the process by which an animal regulate its body temperature.
2. Poikilothermic/Ectothermic are animals that are unable to maintain their body temperature constant
meaning that they rely more on heat derived from the external environment rather than on metabolic
heat.
3. Homeothermic/Endothermic are animals that are able to maintain their body temperature constant
meaning that they rely on heat derived from the metabolism (metabolic heat) rather than heat derived
from the external environment. =) independent from external environment.
4. Thermogenesis is the production of heat by metabolic activity.
5. Thermoneutral zone is the range of temperatures in which the body can adjust body temperature without
requiring extra energy.
6. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate in a fasting adult mammal at rest conditions where
metabolism is unaffected by changes in temperature.
7. Non-shivering thermogenesis is the production of metabolic heat without shivering meaning without any
contraction of the skeletal muscles.
8. Shivering thermogenesis is the production of metabolic heat with the use of shivering including the
contraction of skeletal muscles.

Osmoregulation
1. Excretion is the elimination of waste metabolic substances which if permitted to accumulate it would
prevent homeostasis.
2. Osmoregulation is the control of the salt balance and osmotic pressure of the fluids in an organism.
3. Egestion is the removal of undigested food.
 4. Osmoconformers are animals that do not expand a lot of energy in maintaining a body fluid composition as
the ion concentration in their body fluids are similar to their surrounding water.
5. Osmoregulators are animals that spend a lot of energy to maintain the ionic concentration of body fluids
constant.
6. Mammalian kidney are responsible for excretion and osmoregulation acting as filtration and purification
organs.
7. Afferent arteriole transports blood towards the glomerulus
8. Efferent arteriole transports blood away from the glomerulus
9. Ultrafiltration is the process by which blood is forced through a filter, removing water and small solute
molecules.

Angiosperms
1. Monoecious plants are plants with unisexual flowers with both sexes on the same plant.
2. Dioecious plants are plants with unisexual flowers with 1 sex in each plant
3. Complete flowers are flowers with all 4 flowers whorls
4. Incomplete flowers are flowers with 1 or more whorls which are missing
5. Hypogynous are petals, sepals and stamen attached at the base of the ovary
6. Epigynous are petals, sepals and stamen attached at the top of the ovary
7. Superior Ovary is when the floral parts are attached to the receptacle underneath the ovary therefore the
flower is said to be Hypogynous
8. Inferior Ovary is when the floral parts are attached to the top of the ovary therefore the flower is said to
be Epigynous.
9. Pollination is the process by which pollen grains are transferred to the stigma
 10. Self pollination is when pollination occurs between an anther and a stigma on the same flower or different
flower but on the same plant
11. Cross Pollination is when pollination occurs between flowers on different plants
12. Protandry is when the androecium matures before the gynoecium
13. Protogyny is when the gynoecium is matured before the androecium
14. Double fertilisation is when 2 fertilisation steps takes place. One where 1 male nucleus fuses with the egg
and the other when 1 male nucleus fuses with the 2 polar nuclei
15. A fruit is a fertilised ovary and is not necessary edible
16. Germination is the growth of a seed into a new plant

Evolution
1. Evolution is the changes occurring as time passes such as the changes in organisms.
2. Variation are any differences in characteristics shown by organism of the same species.
3. Continuous variation is a type of variation whose specific characteristics have a continuous range from 1
extreme to another.
4. Discontinuous variation is a type of variation that occurs where a specific characteristic has a number of
distinct classes but can’t be measured across a complete range.
5. Crossing over produces new combinations of allele which are phenotypically expressed
6. Mendel’s law states that each pair of alleles may combine randomly with either of another pair.
7. Mutation is a change in the amount, arrangement or structure of the DNA of an organism.
8. Germ line mutation is a type of mutation that occurs in gametes and is inherited.
9. Somatic mutation is a type of mutation that occur in somatic cells and is not inherited.
10. Spontaneous mutations are a permanent change in the genome that occur without any outside influence.
11. Induced mutation is a type of mutation that occur when a permanent change in DNA occurs due to
external agents called mutagens
12.Mutagens are external agent which causes permanent changes in DNA.
13. Silent Mutation is an alternation in DNA sequence that does not result in an amino acid in a polypeptide.
14. Frameshift mutation is a type of mutation that causes the mRNA to be misread during translation
15. Aneuploidy is the loss or gain of a single chromosome resulting in a non-disjunction.
16. Monosomy is when an organism has only 1 copy of a chromosome that should be present in 2 copies
17. Trisomy is when an organism has a 3rd copy of a chromosome that should be present in 2 copies.
18. Non-disjunction is when the chromosome fails to separate during anaphase I or anaphase II of meiosis.
19. Polyploidy is the duplication of a whole chromosome set
20. Gene pool is the total variety of genes and alleles present in a sexually reproducing population.
21. Gene flow is the gradual exchange of genes within 2 populations brought about by dispersal of gametes or
the migration of individuals.
22. Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium Principle states that a population is not changing genetically.
23. Natural Selection is the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tends to survive
and produce more offsprings.
24. Artificial selection is the process whereby humans determine which genotype will pass to successive
generations.
25. Polymorphism is defined as the existence of 2 or more forms of the same species within the same
population.
26. Speciation is the process by which 1 or more species arise form previously existing species
27. Prezygotic isolation mechanism is a type of reproductive isolation which occurs before the formation of
the zygote.
28. Postzygotic isolation mechanism is type of reproductive isolation which occurs after the production of the
zygote.