1.

4 Cross-sectional Index and Meandering Index

 Alluvial stream channels, due to the continuous process of erosion and
deposition, have ever-changing cross-sections. In order to express these
changes, a characteristic ratio, called cross-section index, is often used.

 in which d =A/B - hydraulic depth; B - water-surface width

 Meandering index, M - The ratio
of the actual stream channel alignment
to the corresponding length of the
valley line
1.5 Development Process of a Stream
 Stream channel formation
o Streams exhibit a wide range of physical characteristics at different
phases of their formation and will react differently to management or
restoration efforts by resource managers.
o Stream managers or users must understand stream channel formation to
adequately address stream problems and restoration.
 Dynamic equilibrium
o All streams try to move towards a state of dynamic equilibrium.
o One way to describe this equilibrium is the amount of sediment delivered to
the channel from the watershed is in long-term balance with the capacity of
the stream to transport and discharge that sediment.
o The streams dynamic equilibrium can be expressed with the “stream
power proportionality” equation developed by Lane
 According to Lane’s equation, the products of Q S and Qs D50
are proportional to each other.

o For example,

 If slope is increased and stream flow remains the same, either the
sediment load or the size of the particles must also increase.

 If flow is increased (e.g., by an inter basin transfer) and the slope

stays the same, sediment load or sediment particle size has to
increase to maintain channel equilibrium.

 A stream seeking a new equilibrium tends to erode more

sediment and of larger particle size.
 Stable streams are in dynamic equilibrium and called graded
(poised).
 The slope of a graded stream, over a period of years, has delicately
adjusted to provide, with the available discharge and prevailing
channel characteristics, the velocity required for the transportation of
the sediment load supplied from the drainage basin.
 A graded stream can have depositional and erosional events but
overall the sediment transported and supplied to the stream is
balanced over long periods.
 Disturbance of the equilibrium leads to unstable streams that are
degrading (eroding) or aggrading (depositing).
 Degrading streams have a deficit of sediment supply, while
aggrading streams have an excess of sediment supply.
The channel evolution model

 Channel dimensions (width and depth of the channel) are very important
characteristics for describing streams.
 These characteristics are incorporated in a conceptual model called the
channel evolution model (CEM).
 This model builds upon the dynamic equilibrium theory and describes the
stages a stream goes through to reach a new dynamic equilibrium following
a disturbance.
 It also describes the stream bank erosion processes (downcutting,
headcutting, or lateral erosion) that are dominant during the different
stages.
The five stages of channel evolution model

Stage I (Stable)
The stream flow discharge of Q2 will spill
in the floodplain and deposit sediment and
organic matter.
 Q2 has a probability of occurring every
two years and associated with bankfull
discharge.
 h < hc. (critical height)
hc is that height above which the banks
have high potential of collapsing by
gravitational forces.
 Stage II (Incision)

This stage starts after disequilibrium conditions occur.

These conditions occur as a result of higher Q or S (slope), which lead to an
increase in Qs capacity in order to maintain the dynamic equilibrium.
The increased Qs capacity causes downcutting of the stream bed.
Height of the stream banks increases to higher than critical (h>hc).
As a result the banks now can hold stream flow discharge of Q10.
A knick point (abrupt change in slope) can indicate the movement of incision
upstream and in the tributaries.
 Stage III (Widening)

The extensive increase in bank heights (h > hc) of the channel leads to excessive

stream bank instability.

The banks start collapsing and the stream starts widening.

These streams are extremely deep and wide.

Most of the sediment is still moving downstream

 Stage IV (Stabilizing)

Excessive sediment deposition from the stream banks in the channel

makes it impossible for the stream flow discharge to remove all of it.
The stream bank height starts decreasing (typically equals the critical
height).
Vegetation starts growing on the sloughing material that is not
removed.
A new lower capacity stream channel is formed
 Stage V
(Stable with terraces)

A new channel develops and the new banks have heights shorter than the

critical bank height.

The new floodplain is connected with the stream.

Terraces are the remnants of the original floodplain

Channel evolution model
 Within each of the five stages of the Channel Evolution Model, channel
adjustment is dominated by one of the several processes.
 For example,
 in Stage II, downcutting yields the majority of the stream sediment;
 in Stage III lateral (stream bank) erosion is the primary mechanism
of channel adjustment.
 The difference between these types of erosion has implications for
determining the type of restoration efforts.
 In Stage II success of restoration depends upon stopping stream
downcutting by what is called “bed stabilization.”
Bed stabilization is usually done by installing grade control
structures such as gabions or check dams.
 In Stage III, where lateral erosion dominates, restoration efforts
should focus on the stream banks.
1.6 Bed forms and alluvial roughness
 Different and changing forms result depending on the interaction between
the sediment and the flow of water.

 Bed forms and their relationship with flow regimes is essential as the
resistance to flow in alluvial channels is largely determined by bed
configuration.
 water exerts a shear stress on individual sediment particles, given as
τ = g RS
 If Manning equation for uniform flow is used, this shear stress can be
expressed as

in which n is the Manning roughness coefficient, R the hydraulic radius and V the
mean velocity.
Assuming that n and R are
constant; this is a simple quadratic
relation between τ and V.
If roughness coefficient n changes
as a result of the shear stresses on
the loose bed, the relationship
generally assumes a form similar to
the one shown in the Figure
 Bed forms

 Many types of bedforms can be observed in nature.

 When the bed form crest is perpendicular (transverse) to the main flow
direction, the bedforms are called transverse bedforms,
 such as ripples, dunes and anti-dunes

 Ripples have a length scale smaller than the water depth,

 Dunes have a length scale much larger than the water depth.
 Bedforms with their crest parallel to the flow are called longitudinal
bedforms such as ribbons and ridges.
 In laboratory flumes the sequence of bedforms with increasing flow
intensity is
Flat bed → Ripples →Dunes → High stage flat bed → Antidunes
Plane (flat) bed: is a plane bed surface without
elevations or depressions larger than the
largest grain of the bed material.
Ripples: are formed at relatively weak flow
intensity and are linked with fine materials, with
d50 less than 0.7 mm.
Dunes: The shape of dunes is very similar to
that of ripples, but it is much larger.
The size of dunes is mainly controlled by flow
depth.
Dunes are linked with coarse grains, with d50
bigger than 0.6 mm.
With the increase of flow intensity, dunes grow
up, and the water depth at the crest of dunes
becomes smaller.
At a fairly high velocity at the crest, dunes will
be washed-out and the high stage flat (plane)
bed is formed.
Transition: generated by flow conditions
intermediate between those producing
dunes and plane bed.
In many cases, part of the bed is covered
with dunes while a plane bed covers the
remainder.
Antidunes: also called standing waves.
When Froude number exceeds unity
antidunes occur.
The wave height on the water surface is
the same order as the antidune height.
The surface wave is unstable and can
grow and break in an upstream direction,
which moves the antidunes upstream.
Chutes and Pools: occur at relatively
large slopes with high velocities and
sediment concentrations.
  Ripples and Dunes travel downstream by erosion at the upstream face
(stoss side) and deposition at the downstream face (lee side).
 Antidunes travel upstream by lee side erosion and stops side deposition
(see Figure).
Bed form migration in lower and upper
regimes
 Bars

Bars: bed forms having lengths of the same

order as the channel width, or greater, and
heights comparable to the mean depth of the
generating flow.
Bars have generally elongated shapes, usually
reaching lengths equal to channel width or more.

Point bars are formed on the convex side of channel bends or meandering alluvial streams.
Alternate bars are characteristic feature of crossings, i.e. straight stretches between
successive meanders.
Tributary bars are formed at confluence of tributaries with the main stream, and they extend
downstream. Tributary bars, developed during high flows may appear as detached small
islands during low water.
Alluvial cones, fans and stream delta

Alluvial fans

Alluvial deltas
Alluvial cones
 Alluvial Cones and Fans
 At locations in which an alluvial stream suddenly changes its slope from relatively
steep to mild, as for instance when leaving mountainous area and entering
alluvial plain, or where a steep tributary meets a flat stream, an alluvial fan may
develop.
 Chronology of development
 Stage (a) - A relatively unobstructed
or recently regulated stream channel carries the water safely within its banks;
 Stage (b) - Beginning of sediment deposition, part of the available cross section is
blocked;
 Stage (c) - Sediment deposition continues, stream channel fills up and the water
starts to overflow the banks, flooding part of the adjacent area, the flood-plain;
 Stage (d) - The water which has overflown the banks moves with a very low velocity
over the flood plain and fine sediment settles down on both sides of the stream-bed.
 Stage (e) - At this stage the channel bed is higher than the surrounding area, and
this situation is justly known as an "elevated stream-bed".
 This elevated area is called the alluvial cone. When the water flowing over the cone
fans out in the form of branching gullies, it is known by the name of alluvial fan (see
Figure )
Stream Delta
When a stream finally reaches the sea, or any other expanse of water, it loses most of its
tractive power and deposits all of its sediments, including the finest silt and clay fractions.
The deposited sediment generally takes the form similar to an alluvial fan, but its formation
is much more complex, because of additional parameters that are of considerable influence,
such as sea waves and breakers, offshore currents and tidal motion.
Stream mouths may generally be of three main types:
1) estuaries,
2) lagoons, and
3) Deltas
Delta is a highly dynamic natural phenomenon, since it is actually the result of a
continuous contest and interaction between the stream and the sea or other water expanse.
  For a confluence, the continuity of equation
for water (Q) and sediment (QS) hold.
Q0 = Q1 + Q2
QS0 = QS1 + QS2

A few typical cases for qualitative analysis:

It is assumed that the bottom elevation of the tributary at the confluence is roughly the
same as that of the main stream (case 1, 2, & 3).
Liquid discharge, sediment discharge, mean grain size and the hydraulic gradient in the
main stream are Q1, Qs1, ds1, and S1, respectively; in the tributary they are Q2, Qs2, ds2,
and S2
Both streams carry the maximum sediment discharge according to their respective
sediment transport capacity (STC) under the given flow conditions.
 Case 1: The flood wave in both streams occurs roughly at the
same time
Water stage in the main stream is usually higher than in
the tributary,
 Hence back-water curve will develop in the
tributary
As a result, hydraulic gradient in the tributary, u/s
of the confluence, will decrease, causing sediment
deposition close to the stream-mouth.
D/s of confluence liquid discharge in the main
stream will increase (Q1 to (Q1 + Q2)), Therefore, there will be
The sediment discharge decrease from QS1 to deposition, because STC will not
somewhat less than (Qs1 + QS2), because a
be sufficiently high.
relatively small part of QS2 will already have been
deposited
Case 2: During the flood wave in the tributary, there is low water in
the main stream

Water level in the tributary will be higher than in the main stream, and
 Hence a drawdown curve will have to form in the tributary upstream of the confluence.
Due to flow velocities higher than for normal flow, STC of the tributary will be high enough to
carry the entire sediment load, QS2.
So the tributary is likely to stay clean
In the downstream main channel the combined discharge (Q1 + Q2) may well be too low to carry
the total sediment load (Qs1 + QS2),
Hence a considerable part of it is likely to be deposited downstream of the confluence, causing
large sand bars.
Case 3: Low water in the tributary during the passage of a flood
wave in the main stream

Back-water curve extend much farther upstream into the tributary.

In spite of the reduced flow velocities due to back-water, sediment load in the tributary will
be relatively low, and the tributary is likely to be capable of handling it.
Hence little deposition is expected to take place in the tributary.
There is relatively modest addition of sediment from the tributary.
High flow velocities in the main stream are likely to raise its STC just enough to carry the
additional load without much difficulty,
Hence probably little or no deposition in the main channel either
 Case 4: water level in the tributary is higher than in the main
stream and the bed elevation of the tributary at the confluence
is higher than in the main stream

There will be a drawdown curve in the

tributary upstream of the confluence,
accompanied by high velocities,
Severe erosion is to be expected
along the bed of the tributary.
After some time, a part of channel bed
may collapse, shifting the drop from 1 to The eroded material will ultimately
2; this process, generally known as be carried into the main stream,
back-erosion, may repeat itself several settling downstream of the
times (points 3, 4, etc.), and thus confluence until entrained by high
endanger the stability of the channel. water during flood waves
 Meandering and Braided Stream Channels
 Alluvial streams generally flow in a succession of clockwise and anti-clockwise
bends, interconnected by relatively short straight reaches called crossings.

 Such geometrical alignment is

generally known as a meandering river

A watercourse is generally
called a meandering stream
when the ratio between its
actual length and the length
of the valley is 1.5 or more
(the ratio is rarely more than
about 2.5).
 A general characteristic of all meandering watercourses is the migration of
the bends downstream and under certain circumstances even laterally.
 The crossings are relatively shallow compared to deep parts of the bends that
precede and follow them.
 A considerable part of the bed material eroded from the concave bank of the bend
is deposited in the crossings by the spiral cross currents
 At lower discharges, sand bars also may be formed in the crossings.
 The main erosion process is to be expected at the concave side of the flow
channel.
 Braided stream. The characteristic features of such a configuration are a wide
channel, unstable and poorly defined banks and shallow water.
 The watercourse consists of a number of entwined channels divided by islands,
which meet, cross and separate again.
 Main causes:
1) Supply of more sediment than warranted
by its STC, hence part of the load is
deposited,
2) Steep longitudinal slopes that tend to
produce a wide and shallow channel in
It is generally assumed that a braided
which bars readily form, become
stabilized by armouring and vegetation channel has a steep slope, a large bed
and form islands, and
load in comparison with the suspended
3) Easily erodible banks, allowing the
widening of the stream channel at high load, and usually small amounts of silt and
flows.
clay particles in both bed and banks.
 Bed Roughness
 Resistance to flow with a movable boundary consists of two parts.
 The roughness that is directly related to grain size is called GRAIN
ROUGHNESS.
 The roughness that is due to the existence of bedforms and that changes with
changes of bedforms is called FORM ROUGHNESS.
 If Manning’s roughness coefficient is used, the total coefficient n
n  n   n 
 The value of n’ is proportional to the sediment particle size to the
sixth power d 6
n
1

 Strickler defined Manning’s n as 21.1

d 906
1

 Meyer-Peter and Mueller n

26

 Similar to the division of total roughness into grain roughness and form roughness,

 
the shear stress or drag force acting along an alluvial bed can be divided into two
parts       S R   R 