Electricity 2

Versión 1.1

Index:

1. Series circuits 1
2. Parallel circuits 2
3. Mixed circuits 2
4. Magnets and electromagnets 3
5. Generators 4
6. The electric motor 4

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1. Series circuits

1.1. Generators connected in series

Two or more generators are said to be in series when they are
connected one behind the other. But be careful, they have to be
connected in a certain way! The positive terminal of one generator
must be connected to the negative terminal of the next generator. See
the illustration to the right.

1.2. In series, the total voltage equals the voltage of all the
generators added together
If we connect various generators in series, the total voltage of the set
will be the sum of each generator’s voltage added together. That is: V
total = V1 + V2 + … + Vn
1.3. Higher voltage, higher power
If you increase the voltage that is applied to a circuit, you also increase the power that it can provide. This is very
important when designing portable electronic devices: we simply need to insert more batteries in order to obtain a
more powerful device. A flashlight with 3 batteries connected in series will provide more light than if it had only 2
batteries, since it is more powerful. Other examples of portable devices with batteries in series are: music players,
games, calculators, etc.

1.4. Some generators are not what they seem

Some batteries that look like individual generators are actually a set of smaller generators connected in series. One
example is the 4.5 V flat battery, like the one shown in the picture below. Inside there are 3 cylindrical batteries
connected in series. Each cylindrical battery produces 1.5 V, so the flat battery provides a total of 4.5 V.

1.5. Solar cells connected in series

In addition to batteries, another common example of generators connected in series is solar panels. One individual
solar cell produces very little voltage, around 0.5 V. Thus, it is necessary to group them together in panels. The
individual cells are connected in series in a solar panel in order to obtain higher voltages.

1.6. Receivers connected in series

Two or more receivers (light bulbs, motors, buzzers, etc.) are in series when they are connected one behind the other,
sharing the same wire.

1.7. Connection of light bulbs in series

There are various ways to correctly connect two or more light bulbs in series, as shown below:

Four possible ways to connect two bulbs in a series. All are correct.
The arrows indicate the direction of flow of electric current.

1.8. Other examples of circuits with receivers in series

More examples of circuits with various types of receivers connected in series:
- Two electric motors connected in series, powered by a flat battery (4.5 V).
- A light bulb, motor and buzzer connected in series, powered by a prismatic 9 V battery.

1.9. If one of the receivers in the series stops working, all will stop working
In a series connection, the electric current must pass through all the receivers in order to make the circuit work. This
presents a problem: if one of the receivers breaks down (like a light bulb burning out), the current cannot circulate and
none of the other receivers in the circuit will work.

1.10. Receivers in series share the generator’s voltage

Receivers in series share the voltage provided by the generator proportionally to its resistance. If all receivers are
equal, in the simplest case all will be subject to the same voltage. For example: if we connect 3 equal bulbs to a 4.5 V
battery, each one will receive only 1.5 V (4.5 volts divided between 3 bulbs). If bulbs are manufactured to operate at
4.5 V, they will provide very little energy. In circuits with receivers with different resistances, it should apply Ohm's
Law to determine the voltage received by each receiver.

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2. Parallel circuits

2.1. Generators connected in parallel

Two or more generators are said to be connected in parallel when
terminals of the same polarity are connected to each other. All the
positive terminals are connected to an output wire (normally red in color)
and all the negative terminals are connected to an input wire (normally
black in color).

2.2. Example of a circuit with two batteries in parallel

On the right you can see an example of a circuit with two generators (two
cylindrical batteries) connected in parallel.

2.3. Two or more parallel generators provide the same voltage as

one
You should never connect in parallel generators that have different voltages, since part of the stream leaving the
higher voltage generator will go to the lower voltage, which decreases overall performance. If we connect several
generators in parallel correctly, i.e. with the same voltage, the group voltage will be the same as one.

2.4. The parallel connection of batteries increases the circuit’s operating time
One big advantage of the parallel connection of batteries is that it increases the operating time of the circuits that
supply them.

2.5. Power plants are connected to each other in parallel

Power plants are connected to each other in parallel in order to supply current to the power system. Thanks to the
parallel connection, the current that is supplied by each plant is added to the current produced by the other plants.
The more electric current, the more electricity consumers can be connected to the power system.

2.6. Receivers connected in parallel

In order to connect receivers in parallel, the main wire that comes from the generator must be split into two or more
wires, however many receivers there are.

2.7. The generator’s voltage reaches all the receivers connected in parallel
In parallel, each of the receivers receives all the voltage supplied by the generator, as if they were directly connected.
For example, if we connect two light bulbs to a 4.5 V battery, each one will receive 4.5 V. The bulbs will shine as if
they were each directly connected to the battery.

2.8. If one of the receivers turns off or breaks down, the others will continue working
In this type of circuit, the electric current circulates through different branches. If one of these branches is open, as
happens when a light bulb burns out or an electrical appliance is turned off, the current can continue circulating
through the other branches with no problem.

2.9. A few more examples of receivers connected in parallel

1. Car headlights: The headlights of a car are connected in parallel. In this way, if one burns out, the others continue
working.
2. Home electrical appliances: All home electrical appliances are connected in parallel to a power system.

2.10. The more receivers in parallel, the faster the batteries will drain
The more receivers in parallel are connected to a generator, the more electric current they will supply. In the case of
batteries, the more receivers there are, the sooner the batteries will drain. We can compare it to a tank of water that
has an outflow tube. If we add more outflow tubes, the tank will empty more quickly.

3. Mixed circuits

3.1. Series-parallel connection

A series-parallel connection is a circuit that has some components
connected in series and others connected in parallel. On the right you
can see an example of a circuit with four bulbs in mixed connection.

3.2. A flashlight with batteries in a series-parallel connection

In order to build a powerful flashlight that can operate for many hours,
batteries are connected to each other in a series-parallel fashion. It uses
a group of three batteries connected in series in order to obtain the
voltage needed by a powerful light bulb. In order to increase the amount

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of time that it can stay lit, two of these groups of batteries are connected in parallel. In this way, we achieve more
power and operating time.

3.3. Series-parallel connections are very common in electronic circuits

Series-parallel connections of electrical receivers, such as light bulbs, motors or buzzers, are not very common. In
contrast, most of the components that comprise electronic circuits (resistors, LEDs, transistors, diodes, etc.) are
connected in this way.

4. Magnets and electromagnets

4.1. Magnetism
A magnet or permanent magnet, is a body that has the property of attracting iron objects (including nickel and cobalt).
This property is called magnetism and the forces involved magnetic forces.
The first documented example of magnetism in the story comes from ancient Greece, over 2 600 years ago. The
Greeks discovered a mineral of black color that attracted iron objects. This mineral, which today is call magnetite, was
discovered in a territory of Asia Minor (now Turkey) that the ancient Greeks called Magnesia, hence the term
magnetism.
The magnets are made from metal alloys and can be made with the way we want.

4.2. Magnets have two poles

Magnets have two different faces calls poles: A north pole (N) and south pole (S). If a magnet is hung by a thread and
we wait for it to stabilize, we see that the north pole of the magnet points to the geographic north of Earth, while the
south pole of the magnet points towards the geographic south. The Earth behaves like a giant magnet, whose
geographic north corresponds to the magnetic south pole of a magnet, and the geographic South Pole with the
magnetic north pole. The easiest way to identify the poles of a magnet is using a compass. The compass is just a
small magnet needle pointing north Earth. If we bring a compass to a magnet, the needle always points to the south
pole of the magnet.

4.3. Magnetic field of a magnet

It is called magnetic field to the area of space around a magnet in which we can see the effects of its magnetic force.
It is represented by lines and arrows coming out of the north pole of the magnet and go to the South Pole. You can
view the shape of the magnetic field of a magnet sprinkling iron filings around. The filings will distribute along the lines
of magnetic field strength.

4.4. The law of the poles

When two magnets are close, their magnetic fields interact with each other creating forces of attraction or repulsion.
The law of the poles tells us how two magnets behave when approached. It is very simple: similar poles repel each
other, different poles attract each other.

4.5. Use of magnets

Magnets have numerous technological applications: electric engines, generators, speakers, measuring instruments,
fasteners, etc.

4.6. Electromagnetism
In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted made a startling discovery. He realized that, if approached an
electrical cable to a compass, the needle of the compass (which is a magnet) moved. A magnet moves without
touching it only if there is another magnet nearby, so the logical consequence is that electric current through a wire is
capable of creating a magnetic field around it, as a permanent magnet. With this experiment was revealed for the first
time that electricity and magnetism are related. Other scientists who came later, especially James Clerk Maxwell
studied in more depth this issue and concluded that electricity and magnetism are different manifestations of the
same phenomenon, so today we talk about electromagnetism.

4.7. Electromagnets
One of the most frequent applications of electromagnetism is the electromagnets. An electromagnet is an electrical
component behaves like a magnet when electric current flows inside. It consists of a coil of thread (insulated) wound
around a core of iron or steel. Electromagnets and permanent magnets have a north pole (N) and south pole (S), but,
unlike these, only become apparent when the electromagnet is connected to the mains.

4.8. Changing the polarity o fan electromagnet

It is very easy to change the polarity of an electromagnet, i.e., the way their poles are placed. You only need to
change the polarity of the current that feeds it.

4.9. Electromagnets appliances

Electromagnets have many advantages over permanent magnets: they can be switched on and off, change its
polarity and can be much more powerful. These features make them useful in many applications, some of the most

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important are: electric engines, speakers, recording systems on magnetic media (such as computer hard drives),
medical devices, doorbells, etc.

5. Generators

5.1. Electromagnetic induction

In the mini-unit about magnets and electromagnets we saw how an electric current may generate a magnetic field (an
electromagnet, for example). Now we see that it is possible to do the opposite, i.e., a magnetic field to generate
electricity. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction and was discovered by the English physicist
Michael Faraday in 1831.

Faraday discovered that if we move a magnet near an electrical conductor, inside the driver an electron movement is
generated, i.e. electric current. The amount of current will be greater the faster the movement of the magnet. If the
magnet is stopped, the current ceases. What happens is that part of the mechanical energy of motion of the magnet is
converted into electrical energy. To understand this phenomenon we can imagine that the magnetic field of the
magnet "pushes" the electrons inside the wire and forces them to move. A current generated by electromagnetic
induction is called induced current.

If in the experiment on the previous page the magnet is kept still and the coil moves the effect is the same, since what
matters is the relative movement between the magnet and the coil. You could also replace the permanent magnet by
an electromagnet and again the result would not change. No matter if the magnetic field comes from a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. The general rule is that a current induced in a coil is obtained whenever exposed to a
fluctuating magnetic field (which varies with time). If the magnetic field is always the same, there is no
electromagnetic induction.

5.2. Electric generators

Electromagnetic induction is the basis of operation of the most commonly used electric generators: dynamo-electric
generators. They are generators that transform mechanical rotation energy into electrical energy and are used in
almost all power plants: thermal, wind, hydroelectric, nuclear, etc.. Most electric generators produce alternating
current, reason why, they are also called alternators. There are also generators that produce direct current, although
not so used and are called dynamos.

The simplest example of a dynamo-electric generator is the bicycle. It consists of a coil wire and a rotating magnet.
The magnet is connected via a shaft to a friction wheel. When the friction wheel is brought into contact with the
bicycle tire, it rotates at high speed and rotates the magnet. The rotating magnet produces a fluctuating magnetic field
that induces electrical current in the coil. This current is used to power bicycle headlights. The type of current
produced by this generator is alternating, i.e., is an alternator, although often called "dynamo" colloquially, probably
because the first generators used in lighting of bicycles produced current.

6. The electric motor

6.1. What is an electric motor?
An electric motor is a machine that transforms electrical energy into mechanical Where does one find direct
rotational energy. current permanent magnet
motors?
6.2. The permanent magnet motor
There are many types of electric motors. In this lesson, we will study the direct At home:
- toys
current permanent magnet electric motor, one of the simplest and most utilized
- toothbrushes
electric motors. - electric razors
These motors are found in a large number of electrical appliances and electronics - battery-operated fans
(see the list to the right for some examples). It is possible that you have used this - photography cameras
type of motor in a technology class at your school. - battery-operated drills
- computer fans
Direct current permanent magnet motors tend to be small. The larger ones are
those found in cars, for example, the motor of the radiator fan or the windshield In vehicles:
wipers. Normally, they are found in devices that need little power. When more - windshield wipers
- power windows
powerful motors are required, i.e. industrial uses, other types of electric motors
- motor fans
are utilized that use alternating current and that do not have permanent magnets.
And in many other places...

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6.3. Inside an electric motor
Parts o fan electric motor:
- Magnets. They create fixed magnetic forces that interact with the variable magnetic forces generated by the
electromagnets. The set of magnets and the pieces that do not turn is called the stator. The set of parts that consist of
the magnets and the pieces that do not turn is called the stator
- Rotor. This is the set of pieces that do turn. Basically, the electromagnets, the commutator and the axle.
- Electromagnets. They create variable magnetic forces that interact with those generated by the magnets, which then
makes the motor turn. They are made up of a spool of conductive wire and a core of iron or steel.
- Axle. This is a long steel cylinder. It makes the rotating motion of the rotor possible. Gears or pulleys are installed on
the axle outside of the motor in order to transmit the rotation to all types of machines.
- Commutator. This is made up copper plates through which electricity enters from the exterior to the rotor’s
electromagnets. The plates are also called commutator segments.
- Brushes. These are parts made of graphite or copper (as in this case) that continually press against the commutator.
Their function is to allow the current to pass from the exterior to the rotor’s electromagnets.
- Enclosure. The enclosure is the structure that gives sturdiness to the motor and protects its delicate parts.

6.4. Magnets and electromagnets

The functioning of electric motors is based on the properties of magnets and electromagnets. We will do a quick
review of their characteristics.

6.4.1. Magnets
A magnet (or permanent magnet) is an object that has the property of attracting objects made of iron or steel. It has
two poles: a north pole (N) and a south pole (S).

The area of space around a magnet in which one can see the effects of the magnetic force is called the magnetic
field. It is represented by lines and arrows that start from the north pole and go towards the south pole.

6.4.2. Electromagnets
An electromagnet is an electric component that turns into a magnet when electricity goes through it. It is made up of a
spool of conductive wire wrapped around a core of iron or steel. It also has a north pole (N) and a south pole (S), but
only when it is activated.

6.4.3. The law of magnetic poles

This law illustrates the way that two magnets function when we bring them close to each other: like poles repel each
other while opposite poles attract each other.

6.5. How does an electric motor work?

ELECTROMAGNET WITH LINEAR MOVEMENT

The movement of an electric motor is caused by the action of the forces of attraction and repulsion that are produced
between magnets and electromagnets. In the experiment below, we can watch this phenomenon. We will see the
linear movement of an electromagnet thanks to the magnetic forces of repulsion that occur with a magnet.

If the circuit is off, the electromagnet is disconnected. Its weight pushes it downward.
If the circuit is on, the electromagnet is connected. It becomes a magnet and north and south poles appear.
Since the two poles are alike, forces of repulsion come into effect and lift the electromagnet.

ELECTROMAGNET WITH PARTIAL ROTATION

If, instead of letting the electromagnet levitate, we place an axle on it that allows it to turn, we obtain a partial rotation
movement. This movement is the first step in building an electric motor.

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BASIC ELECTRIC MOTOR
In the previous experiment, we made the electromagnet turn 45°. To build an electric motor, we need a centered axle
and a system that prevents the cables from tangling. We also need to make the polarity of the rotor’s electromagnets
change cyclically. This is done with a commutator and brushes system. In this way, movements of cyclical attraction
and repulsion are produced, which make the motor turn.

In this position, the two south poles (that of the magnet and of the electromagnet) are close to each other. Forces of
repulsion are produced that make the rotor turn.
When the electromagnet’s north pole gets close to the magnet’s south pole, they begin to mutually attract each other.
From this moment, the forces of attraction are stronger than the forces of repulsion.
Just before the two poles join, the commutator disconnects the electromagnet (the brushes do not touch the
commutator and therefore, the current can not flow). If this did not occur, the forces of attraction of the two poles,
which are different and very close, would stop the motor.
The commutator reconnects the rotor’s electromagnet but this time with the polarity of the inverted current. This
means we now have a south pole in the lower part of the electromagnet again, which is producing forces of repulsion.
Now, the cycle repeats itself.

Commercial motors have two magnets placed next to each other. In this way, the magnetic forces are duplicated and
the motor turns better. They also tend to have rotors with more than one electromagnet.
A real electric motor turns very quickly. It cannot be demonstrated in an animation. Rotation velocities of 10,000
revolutions per minute (rpm) and even faster are common.

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