Professional Documents
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Busse 2017 MLJ Pluralingualism in Europe
Busse 2017 MLJ Pluralingualism in Europe
This article explores adolescent students’ attitudes toward learning English and other European lan-
guages studied at secondary school. The study is based on 2255 qualitative responses to a survey con-
ducted in Bulgaria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain. The data reveal that, although differences
between countries shape the experience of foreign language learning in different ways, students in all
four countries are highly aware of the global status of English. This can be a positive stimulus for students’
attitudes toward English but it can also negatively affect their attitudes toward learning other languages,
as these can be perceived as less valuable. While perceived societal importance can differ from personal
relevance and while identity issues, ability beliefs, contextual factors on the school and classroom level,
as well as social-relational contexts (especially the relationship to the teacher) also play a role in shaping
students’ attitudes, the data demonstrate that macro-contextual factors exert considerable influence.
They also suggest that more attention must be paid to stimulating positive attitudes toward language
diversity and to fostering plurilingual aspirations in young Europeans.
Keywords: language attitudes; L2 motivation; ideal L2 self; ideal plurilingual Bildungs-Selbst
METHOD
Data Analysis
Participants
All open-ended responses were fully recorded
Students (N = 4,312) from Bulgaria (n = and saved in the qualitative software programme
1,161), Germany (n = 1,113), the Netherlands MAXQDA. The analysis of questionnaire re-
(n = 1,075), and Spain (n = 963) participated sponses followed the six-step guide analysis dis-
in the project. These countries were selected for cussed by Radnor (2001), consisting of topic
their variety with regard to FL learning experi- ordering, category constructing, reading for
ence due to historical, cultural, and linguistic in- content, completing coded sheets, generating
fluences as well as their different levels of English coded transcripts, and analyzing and interpret-
proficiency (European Commission, 2012), but ing the data. The qualitative software programme
largely comparable educational systems (Hörner MAXQDA was used for steps four and five.
et al., 2007). Responses from 2,255 students were This process will be described in more detail
used for the qualitative analysis in this study (Bul- subsequently.
garia: n = 403; Germany: n = 685; Netherlands: n The data were pre-coded by a research assistant
= 560; Spain: n = 607). All participating students and divided into two groups: students who would
were between 14–18 years old (grades 9–13) and have answered the questionnaire differently and
came from mainstream state co-educational sec- those who would have answered similarly. This
ondary schools (6 in Bulgaria, 4 in Germany, 5 in preliminary step showed that some responses
the Netherlands, and 8 in Spain); these were lo- could not be used for further qualitative analy-
cated in a variety of urban/semi-urban locations sis because students either provided no answers
where information and communication technol- to the open-ended question, the meaning was un-
ogy (ICT) facilities enabled the administration clear, or they referred to the national language.
of online questionnaires. Participants had stud- Some students stated that their response to the
ied English at school for an average of 8 years questions in the questionnaire would have been
(SD = 2.57). the same or different for other FLs, but did not
Vera Busse 571
provide any further explanation; these responses In order to enhance reliability and validity,
were also discarded from the analysis. In Spain, three raters worked on the development of cod-
students did not only refer to French (the tradi- ing frames and then analyzed students’ answers.
tional second FL), but also to minority languages. Cohen’s Kappa was used to measure levels of inter-
Because minority languages are also taught at rater reliability, which was high and ranged from
school and—depending on students’ language 0.90 to 0.93. Frequencies were counted to identify
background—may be considered as FLs by some the most frequent recurrent categories to help de-
students, references to minority languages were tect the emphasis that respondents placed on cer-
included in the analysis. These preliminary steps tain factors.
reduced the data set to 2,255 valid responses. Ta-
ble 1 shows that the number of invalid answers
was highest in Bulgaria (65%) and lowest in Spain RESULTS
(37%). The reason for this discrepancy is unclear, RQ 1. To What Extent Are Students’ Attitudes Toward
as students in all countries had the same amount English Different From Their Attitudes Toward Other
of time to fill in the questionnaire. There is also Languages, and What Role Does the Perceived
no evidence to suggest that attrition rate differed Significance of the English Language Play in Those
systematically. Attitudes?
Responses were read several times to explore
topics. A number of topics were anticipated (e.g., In the questionnaire, students were asked
references to the significance of the English whether they would have answered the question-
language), but care was taken to include addi- naire differently if the questions had referred to
tional themes that emerged. After analyzing the a language other than English. The analysis of
data in more depth, descriptive categories were the 2,255 surveys with valid answers indicates that
determined and each statement was linked to a 80% of these students would have provided differ-
category. A second round of analysis was then ent answers; only 20% would have answered in a
conducted to explore conceptual overlap of the similar way. The data thus indicate that a majority
categories. In some instances, answers could be of students feel that their attitudes toward English
linked to several categories resulting in a higher differ from their attitudes toward other languages
number of responses than number of partici- they learn at school, with percentages being high-
pants. In addition, several subcategories emerged est in Bulgaria and the Netherlands (see Table 2).
in the different categories. For instance, some Students’ responses further suggest that the
students stated that they would have answered perceived significance of the English language
the questionnaire differently because they either plays an important role in differing attitudes. Al-
had a special talent for a particular language most 30% of students (648) stated that they would
or lacked talent for a language. Some of these have provided different answers to the question-
responses referred to English, some referred to naire, because they considered English to be par-
other languages. Figure 1 illustrates the relevant ticularly important. The percentage was highest
categories and subcategories that emerged. in the Netherlands and lowest in Bulgaria. In
FIGURE 1
Example of a Category and Subcategories (Different Responses)
Different beliefs
about language
learning ability
Other Other
English English
language(s) language(s)
572 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
TABLE 1
Overview of Responses in the Four Countries
TABLE 2
Overview of Different/Similar Responses in the Four Countries
Note. * n and percentages refer to the total number of valid responses in each country.
TABLE 3
Different Perceived Significance of Languages (Based on Valid Responses)
Note. * n and percentages refer to the total number of valid responses in each country.
contrast, only a tiny percentage of students felt liked English better than other languages. As one
that another language or other languages were student stated:
particularly important or more important than
English (see Table 3). English is the only language I like ( …) This is be-
Students in all countries repeatedly stated that cause English is a world language, and I think it’s
learning English was vital due to its status as a important to be able to speak it. My only other FL
“world language.” They also felt that learning is German, and I think that it is less important than
English was highly relevant for their futures. As English. (Dutch student)
a Bulgarian student explained, “For German, my
answers would differ because of the [ …] fact that In Spain, the picture was more complex. Al-
English is more important and relevant for my though many students stated that learning En-
future.” In addition, students repeatedly pointed glish was very important, answers usually did not
out that most jobs require English skills. In imply that English was more important than learn-
contrast, other languages studied at school were ing other languages. Nevertheless, they some-
perceived as of less importance, with answers in- times negatively referred to French, which is the
dicating less appreciation in general. There were most commonly studied second FL in Spain. As
many instances, particularly in the Netherlands, one student stated, “The other language I am
where students explicitly stated that English was studying is given less importance in the world; this
more important than other FLs, and that they is why I also give it less importance (French).”
Vera Busse 573
TABLE 4
Interest in English Compared to Other Languages
Overall differing levels 85 (21%) 143 (21%) 45 (8%) 143 (24%) 416 (18%)
of interest
More interest in 39 (10%) 68 (10%) 39 (7%) 47 (8%) 193 (9%)
English
More interest in other 38 (9%) 63 (9%) 4 (0.1%) 19 (3%) 124 (5%)
language(s)
More interest in – – – 19 (3%) 19 (1%)
minority languages
No interest in English – – 2 (0.01%) 39 (6%) 41 (2%)
No further 8 (2%) 22 (3%) – 19 (3%) 49 (2%)
explanation
Note. * n and percentages (rounded, except values below 1%) refer to the total number of valid responses in each
country.
While perceived societal significance appears I would put more positive things about the other lan-
to exert considerable influence on students’ at- guage. I hate English, but I need to know it in the
titudes toward and interest in English, some future; it is important. (Spanish student)
students in Bulgaria, Germany, and Spain only
referred to differing levels of interest when asked In nine instances, students explicitly stated that
whether they would have provided different re- English posed a threat to minority languages,
sponses had the questionnaire referred to differ- arguing, for instance, that English was “overval-
ent languages. Of these responses, some students ued” at the expense of minority languages such as
did express a greater interest in languages other Euskera (Basque), and that people should “fight
than English, but percentages were low and in harder” to maintain the minority language. The
the Netherlands there were almost no such ref- spread of English was in some cases also perceived
erences (see Table 4). as a threat to personal identity. As one student
Answers from those who referred only to elaborated:
different levels of interest show that perceived
I fear that introducing English into our educational
significance of a language can differ from per-
and social systems endangers our minority language
sonal interest, which may lead students to prefer [Euskera][ …] English generates the loss of our in-
another FL to English. Nevertheless, even those dividual identity and creates globalisation, a phe-
who are more interested in languages other nomenon which converts us into indistinguishable
than English seem to be acutely aware of its citizens [ …] We are people, and we have an iden-
perceived significance, as the following answer tity! English is NOT my language, and I have neither
illustrates: necessity nor obligation to use it.
I don’t like English and never have. I study it only The data thus indicate the perceived sig-
because it’s a world language [ …] I like Spanish and nificance of English strongly shapes students’
Russian. My answers will definitely differ. (Bulgarian attitudes, in most cases leading to favorable
student) views of English and lesser interest in other lan-
guages. However, students can also perceive the
Spain somewhat differed from the other coun- increasing presence of English in the educational
tries in that those who were more interested in system as a threat, which can trigger unfavorable
other languages also referred to minority lan- attitudes and a stronger sense of identification
guages, explaining that they had more affective with the other language learned.
ties to them, although there were some students
who felt more interested in French and other RQ 2. What Role Do Other Internal and Contextual
languages studied. Unlike in the other three Factors Play in Differing Attitudes?
countries, there were also some instances where
students displayed conflicting feelings toward Further analysis of the data revealed various
English, as the following quote illustrates: other internal and external sources of influence,
574 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
TABLE 5
Teachers and Teaching/Methods
Different teachers 94 (23%) 159 (23%) 254 (45%) 185 (30%) 692 (31%)
Different 7 (2%) 12 (2%) 7 (0.1%) 9 (1%) 35 (2%)
teaching/methods
Note. * n and percentages (rounded, except values below 1%) refer to the total number of valid responses in each
country.
which make students either favor English or an- Ability Beliefs. Differing ability beliefs depend-
other language. The following analysis focuses on ing on the languages learned were mentioned by
the most salient sources of influence. 17% of the students. Ability beliefs were most fre-
quently mentioned in the Netherlands, followed
Teachers. Teachers were clearly important,
by Germany, and least frequently in Bulgaria (see
with 30% of students mentioning teachers as rea-
Table 6).
sons for attitudinal dispositions. In all countries
Dutch students appeared to feel more talented
there were more references to the teacher than
in English and less talented in other languages;
to the actual teaching or teaching method (see
in Germany and Spain, the answers were not posi-
Table 5).
tively biased toward English. In some of the Span-
It is noteworthy that more Bulgarian students
ish responses, perceptions of language aptitude
stated that their answers would differ depend-
may also have been influenced by students’ per-
ing on the teacher who taught the FL course
ceptions of the wider social significance of the lan-
(22%) than due to the perceived significance
guage. As one student explained:
(19%) of the English language. The data from all
four countries illustrate well that language learn-
Nevertheless, Valencian (which is the other language
ing can be a stressful experience for adolescents
I study besides English and Spanish), is more diffi-
and that a positive teacher–student relationship cult for me than English, although it is not a foreign
is very important in developing positive disposi- language, and I have been studying it all my life. I be-
tions toward an FL. There were many instances lieve this is because I think it is a language without a
where students positively highlighted that a par- future.
ticular teacher “cared more” for their learning,
was “more interested” in them or “valued” them Other Factors. Additional factors of varying im-
more, which positively disposed them toward a portance in the different countries are summa-
particular language. Some students stressed that rized in Table 7. In total, 15% of students (337)
the teachers’ interest in them was decisive for made references to language characteristics and
their engagement, while others referred to the language-intrinsic challenges, but more than half
general importance of a positive student–teacher of the responses came from the Netherlands.
relationship. In some instances, different factors Dutch students stated that they perceived learn-
related to teachers’ affective dispositions and pro- ing English to be easier than learning other FLs,
fessional competences seemed to come together, with many references to the difficulty of German
as illustrated by a German student’s response: grammar and French spelling and pronunciation.
The latter was also mentioned by German stu-
Yes! The answer would be very different because, in
dents, but less frequently. By contrast, a few Span-
French, I have a teacher who is more caring. She
is more interested in us, she gives fair grades, she
ish students stated that they perceived English as
teaches well, and her lessons are entertaining. very difficult and considered that the other lan-
guage (a Romance language like French, but also
In some instances German, Bulgarian, and Valencian) was easier to learn due to its proxim-
Spanish students referred very positively to lan- ity to Spanish. About 9% of students, nearly half
guages other than English and linked their en- of them from Bulgaria, felt that time of exposure
joyment to their FL teachers. In the Netherlands, and the age of starting FL learning and number of
however, very few instances of such positive ap- years dedicated to learning the FL made a differ-
praisals of teachers occurred, with nearly none re- ence in their dispositions. Students explained that
ferring to teachers of FLs other than English. they had started learning English earlier and had
Vera Busse 575
TABLE 6
Ability Beliefs
Differing ability levels 26 (6%) 93 (14%) 221 (26%) 48 (9%) 388 (17%)
High ability English 7 (2%) 24 (3%) 63 (7%) 19 (4%) 329 (15%)
High ability other 5 (1%) 24 (3%) 47 (6%) – 76 (3%)
languages
Low ability English – 13 (2%) 35 (4%) 21 (4%) 69 (3%)
Low ability other 13 (3%) 17 (2%) 69 (8%) 4 (0.7%) 103 (5%)
language(s)
No further 1 (0.2%) 15 (2%) 7 (0.8%) 4 (0.7%) 27 (1%)
explanation
Note. * n and percentages (rounded, except values below 1%) refer to the total number of valid responses in each
country.
TABLE 7
Other Factors
Language characteristics and 51 (12%) 54 (8%) 183 (21%) 49 (9%) 337 (15%)
language-intrinsic
challenges
Time of exposure 40 (9%) 17 (2%) 3 (0.4%) 25 (5%) 85 (4%)
Performance/grades 13 (3%) 41 (6%) 9 (1%) 14 (3%) 77 (3%)
Parental views 5 (1%) 27 (4%) 25 (3%) 17 (3%) 74 (3%)
Levels of contact 3 (0.7%) 10 (1%) 28 (3%) 4 (0.7%) 45 (2%)
Media 3 (0.7%) – 28 (3%) 4 (0.7%) 35 (2%)
Stay abroad – 10 (1%) – – 10 (0.4%)
Peer views 3 (0.7%) 9 (1%) 5 (0.6%) 5 (0.9%) 22 (1%)
Status (optional vs. – – 7 (0.8%) 14 (2.9%) 21 (1%)
compulsory)
Bilingual background – – 7 (0.8%) – 7 (0.3%)
Rewards – 2 (0.3%) – – 2 (0.08%)
Learning strategies – 2 (0.3%) – – 2 (0.08%)
Note. * n and percentages (rounded, except values below 1%) refer to the total number of valid responses in each
country.
spent more time learning it, affording them more In Spain, students also mentioned feeling
experience with the language, which positively af- closer to minority languages than to English be-
fected their attitudes toward learning English. In cause minority languages were already introduced
Germany, some students had learned French as a at kindergarten age. In turn, the relationship to
first language, instead of English; this appeared English felt closer than to the second FL such as
to have a positive motivational impact. One German or French because English was studied in
student explained that by starting with French in primary school, whereas the second FL was intro-
the fifth grade, a closer relationship with both the duced in secondary school.
language and the teacher had been developed. Very few students mentioned different perfor-
Another student summarized: mance or grades in one of the languages as a
source of influence on their attitudes. Although
parents and peers were also rarely mentioned, the
My answers would be completely different. I have spe-
cialized in French [ …] It’s simple, my first foreign data show that different views by parents or peers
language is French, and not English, and one can do play a role—for instance, parents may consider
notice that in the grades, in motivation and in per- learning English to be more important than learn-
formance. (German student) ing other languages, encouraging their children
576 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
to concentrate on English. Classmates, usually fa- the Netherlands. Aspiring plurilinguals in Ger-
voring English over other languages, were also many and Spain referred to a general interest
perceived as unsupportive when other languages in languages and the value of FL learning for
were studied. In addition, different levels of con- their future, while aspiring plurilinguals in Bul-
tact were mentioned; in the Netherlands, for garia additionally stressed the status of the FLs
example, interest in learning English was some- they studied, suggesting that traditional FLs like
times explicitly linked to different levels of contact German still hold some prestige. Sometimes an-
with the use of English in media. It appeared that swers touched upon identity-related aspects and
because of high contact with media, the classroom hinted toward a language relevant Bildungs-Selbst.
experience could play a less important role for As one Bulgarian student explained: “Languages
some Dutch students. As one student explained: are an important part of the kind of people we
want to become.” In Spain, the significance of
English interests me a lot. It’s useful in my free learning different languages for economic rea-
time (English videos on YouTube, English TV pro- sons was repeatedly stressed (55 instances). Stu-
grammes, English humour sites). Because of this, a dents made ample references to Spain’s poor
lot of my free time has something to do with English.
economy, some stating that they might have to
In English lessons, that’s different because grammar,
etc. doesn’t interest me. I also don’t find the lessons
emigrate because of poor employment prospects.
fun. (Dutch student) Language skills were seen as useful in that respect,
with one student asserting that “[l]anguages are
By contrast, students in Bulgaria, Germany, or very important to succeed in the future, espe-
Spain rarely mentioned English-speaking media cially in this time of crisis.” This perceived im-
as a source of personal interest. portance seemed to go hand in hand with more
A few students in the Netherlands and Spain pronounced plurilingual educational aspirations.
also referred to the different status of the lan- One student expressed:
guages in the educational system (optional vs.
compulsory), stating that they appreciated having No [ …] I don’t consider English to be more impor-
a choice when opting for another FL in secondary tant than other languages because Italian and Ger-
school. As one student explained: “Because other man [ …] are important for me personally and for
languages, such as German, are not mandatory, who I want to be in the future. English remains some-
I study it because I like it and feel like it.” In thing important in general, but not more important
the Netherlands, seven students also explained than other languages [ …] which I study with the
that they had different mother tongues than their same effort, interest and I give it the same impor-
tance as English. (Spanish student)
classmates, that is, they had grown up bilingually.
These students stated that their perception of how
difficult languages are to learn would positively Only a few students declared a general lack of
differ from monolingual students. Last but not interest in language learning, with eight student
least, some students mentioned different learning responses coming from Germany and Spain each.
strategies or different rewards for performance as However, occasional reference to general be-
a source of influence. liefs about language learning ability explained
similar attitudes, with some students elaborating
RQ 3. To What Extent Are Attitudes Toward English that they had either high ability (“My answers
Similar to Attitudes Toward Other Languages and would be the same because the languages are
What Role Does an Appreciation of Language equally easy for me”) or low ability (“I’m not good
Learning in General Play? at languages, neither English nor German”), irre-
spective of the language involved.
Only 20% of students reported that they would In Bulgaria, some students also referred to their
have answered the questionnaire similarly if it had parents (“they insist on me studying languages”),
referred to another language, and 9% seemed while others felt that the teaching of both FLs
driven by an appreciation of and a general inter- they were studying was equally poor or stressful,
est in language learning. It thus appears that stu- with one student pointing to indifferent teach-
dents who hold positive attitudes toward various ers. Teachers and parents were not mentioned in
languages and strive to become plurilingual are Germany; but in the Netherlands and Spain some
in the minority. In addition, some country-specific students stated that their teachers emphasized the
differences emerged (see Table 8). Plurilingual importance of learning other FLs, a focus that led
aspirations were mostly voiced in Germany and to their valuing the learning of other languages.
Spain, while the fewest references occurred in Some students stated that their parents expected
Vera Busse 577
TABLE 8
Factors Influencing Similar Attitudes Toward Different Languages
Note. * n and percentages (rounded, except values below 1%) refer to the total number of valid responses in each
country.
them to put the same effort into every subject at as being of less importance and utility. Only a neg-
school. ligible number of adolescents in the four coun-
Other factors at play included some students in tries stated that other languages were equally or
Spain mentioning that their answers would be the more important than English, with responses in-
same in reference to learning an FL other than dicating little appreciation of other languages.
English because they had the same peers in their Nevertheless, perceived societal significance
language class, and in one instance the reason for can sometimes be very different from personal
an identical answer was that the other FL was also interest and the importance placed on a par-
studied in the context of school and not in a lan- ticular language by the individual. Strikingly,
guage institute. In Germany, two students stated many students also made references to sociore-
that their performances were the same in all FL lational factors, highlighting the importance of
classes. the teacher–student relationship as a reason for
attitudinal dispositions. The latter adds to the
substantial body of research demonstrating how
DISCUSSION
positive relationships can foster positive atti-
In line with previous research on young Euro- tudes toward learning in general (e.g., Cornelius–
peans’ attitudes toward FL learning (e.g., Dörnyei White, 2007) and to language learning in particu-
et al., 2006), the data illustrate that students’ at- lar (e.g., Taylor, 2013). Teachers are also crucial in
titudes toward English often differ from their at- addressing unfavorable ability beliefs as expressed
titudes toward other FLs learned at school and by some of these students, an issue which has been
that the perceived significance of the English lan- much discussed in the literature on adolescent FL
guage plays a major role in that respect. Although learners (e.g., Williams et al., 2002). Any effort
regionally specific historical, cultural, and linguis- to promote plurilingualism in Europe is likely to
tic influences shape young Europeans’ attitudes fall short if students are not convinced that they
toward languages in various ways, many adoles- are capable of learning various languages. Pay-
cents from countries as diverse as Bulgaria, Ger- ing more attention to students’ language learn-
many, the Netherlands, and Spain highlighted ing mindsets (see, e.g., Ryan & Mercer, 2012) and
the particular importance of English as a lingua linking language achievement to motivation and
franca, emphasizing that English will play a role in effort, rather than talent (Weiner, 1992), is cer-
their future, as most professions require English tainly advisable in that respect.
language skills. On the whole, students’ attitudes However, even frequent references to teachers
toward English appear to be favorable (see Taylor cannot obscure the considerable influence that
& Busse, 2015), with responses suggesting that the the macro-context exerts on the meso- and micro-
perceived significance of English can stimulate level of teaching (see also Ushioda, 2017, this
these positive attitudes toward English but can issue). In Bulgaria and Germany, students who
also give rise to negative attitudes toward other felt more interested in other European languages
European languages because they are perceived than English linked their interest to a more
578 The Modern Language Journal 101 (2017)
positive teacher–student relationship with other gage only with one other language (either an L2
FL teachers, but in the Netherlands, where En- or a FL). This may not adequately reflect the sit-
glish has traditionally been much more present, uation in many learning contexts (Henry, 2010),
students displayed little interest in other FLs and encouraging a problematic monolingual bias
made almost no positive references to other FL in traditional motivational models (see Henry,
teachers. Dutch students also stressed the impor- 2017, this issue). More research is needed on
tance of English more than students in other the relationship between identity and language
countries and more frequently stated that they learning when students learn different languages
perceived English as easier than other languages. simultaneously. The data in this study support
Some Dutch students further explained that they the view that the first FL (English) can work like
felt interested in English and engaged with En- a template against which the second FL is com-
glish, irrespective of whether they enjoy English pared (Henry, 2010). In comparison, the second
learning in the classroom. Studies in other North- FL may not fare well because multiple influences
ern countries, such as Sweden, have observed (including societal and parental views) suggest to
similar phenomena connected to the rise of new the learner that other languages are inferior in
media (e.g., Henry, 2014), which were also men- terms of utility and status. As a consequence a
tioned by Dutch students. Progress in English may well-developed ideal L2 self for English may re-
therefore depend less on classroom input than late negatively to the ideal L2 self for the second
progress in other FLs. Given that progress is im- FL (Csizér & Lukács, 2010). Nevertheless, in this
portant for sustaining positive attitudes toward study, 9% of students held positive attitudes to-
language learning in the long run (e.g., Busse, ward various languages and judged plurilingual-
2014) and that some parents voiced that they ism to be an important educational aim. Similar-
wanted their children to focus on English only, ily to FL university students explored in another
teachers of other languages than English face study, these aspiring plurilinguals may be guided
multiple challenges. by an overarching plurilingual ideal Bildungs-Selbst
While the global status of English and increased (Busse, 2015). Drawing parallels between ded-
exposure to English can bring about positive icated monolingual students studying different
attitudes and incentivize students to learn En- FLs and multilingual students (who are in contact
glish, perceived downward pressure can also have with two or more languages either due to regional
the opposite effect. In Spain, a complex picture multilingualism or different family/heritage lan-
emerged: Students appeared to be acutely aware guages), Henry (2017, this issue) illustrates that,
of the importance of learning English for obtain- in both cases, the image of an ideal self speak-
ing a job, and also feel pressure to learn English, ing various languages can have a powerful effect
which may be related to the difficult economic sit- on motivation. More research is therefore needed
uation in Spain and high unemployment rates. At on the formation of and the individual and con-
the same time, the increased importance placed textual factors contributing to such a plurilingual
on English in the Spanish educational system was ideal Bildungs-Selbst.
sometimes perceived as a threat to local iden- Echoing other studies (e.g., Csizér & Lukács,
tity, which resulted in adverse attitudes toward 2010), a few answers indicated that the order in
learning English. These responses could explain which FLs are learned in combination with the
why students with a minority language as their L1 time of exposure plays a role in students’ atti-
have less positive attitudes toward English than tude toward studying a language. Earlier intro-
students with Spanish as their L1 (Lasagabaster, duction of a second FL could potentially coun-
2003). Globalization may thus work as an incen- teract the bias toward English over the other FL,
tive for some students to learn English, while it but it would be naïve to assume that it would auto-
can trigger anxiety in others, depending also on matically lead to a stronger sense of appreciation
whether or not they want to belong to this per- of language diversity per se. Because students are
ceived global community (see Ushioda, 2017, this very aware of the increasing importance assigned
issue). As fear of loss of identity has also been to English, a more holistic approach is needed,
found among other European citizens (McLaren, with measures being implemented not only on
2004), the study of the relationship between iden- the teaching, but also on the societal, policy, and
tity and language learning appears more timely institutional level. Nevertheless, FL (and espe-
than ever. cially EFL) teachers hold particular responsibil-
Regarding identity-related aspects, it is worth ity in addressing the growing imbalance between
pointing out that motivational research has tradi- languages, by—amongst other initiatives—using
tionally focused on monolingual learners who en- teaching materials that value different languages,
Vera Busse 579
critically question the hierarchical relationship Future studies would therefore have to further
between English and other languages (not only investigate the influence of these variables.
the FLs discussed here, but also students’ home Although results from this qualitative analysis
and heritage languages), and depict individual may not be generalizable and future studies will
plurilingualism as the norm, rather than the ex- have to explore the insights gained here in more
ception. The plurilingual turn in FL teaching depth, it is worth highlighting that data were
is ideally supported by schools that assign high collected in 23 schools in different regions of the
status and visibility to different languages learned four countries. The data provide some nuanced
and spoken by students, communicate the value insights into the complex interplay between
of plurilingualism in general, and stress the bene- multi-layered external and internal factors. On
fits of becoming plurilingual for young Europeans the whole, they suggest that the growing use of
to both students and parents. Such joint efforts English as a lingua franca and the increasing
would not only be a significant step toward pro- presence of English in all European countries ex-
moting plurilingualism in Europe, but also ade- ert considerable influence on students’ attitudes,
quately respond to the increase in linguistic diver- in many cases leading to favorable tendencies
sity due to migratory movements. toward English and less favorable tendencies to-
ward other languages. While dedicated teachers
and adequate teaching materials are important
LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION to foster more positive attitudes toward different
languages and stimulate interest in becoming
While this study adds to knowledge about plurilingual, the data also suggest that a more sub-
young Europeans’ language attitudes, a number stantial effort has to be made if the educational
of limitations have to be acknowledged. First, objectives of the EU are to be met. Societal views
the main focus of the survey was on students’ as expressed in the media, educational policies,
perceptions of learning English. Perceptions of schools and their curriculum, as well as parents,
learning other languages were only elicited via hold responsibility for whether or not students de-
open-ended questions and could thus not be velop favorable attitudes toward language diver-
systematically compared to students’ perceptions sity and come to pursue plurilingual aspirations.
of English. There was also a large amount of
attrition, because not all students filled in the
open-ended questions. In addition, the quality of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
these responses varied greatly: While some stu-
dents gave elaborated accounts, others provided
I am particularly grateful to PI Dr. Florentina Taylor,
much shorter answers.
who designed the project, and the British Council for
Second, potentially sensitive data, such as supporting this study through a Research Partnership
migration background, languages spoken at Award (R1380101). I am also grateful to all the partici-
home, and the socioeconomic status of students’ pating schools; pupils and teachers; researchers and re-
parents, were not collected, for ethical reasons, search assistants, in particular Katharina Lindefjeld and
in the questionnaire. That leaves unexplored Jana Jungclaus; and to the two anonymous reviewers.
whether students’ responses differed according
to their background. It is known, for instance, that
socioeconomic status affects self-efficacy beliefs
for FL learning (Kormos & Kiddle, 2013), and af- NOTE
fluent parents are more likely to be able to afford
visits to other European countries (e.g., Wright,
1
1999) or hold jobs where they use different FLs The full questionnaire can be downloaded from
and engage with people from various European www.iris-database.org/.
countries. There is also evidence to suggest that
immigrant bilingualism may affect FL learning
positively when socioeconomic status is con-
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