Biogeochemical Cycles

Matter on Earth exists as atoms and cannot be created or destroyed, only

recycled in various forms in the Earth's system.
A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway that a chemical substance takes through
living and non-living components of the Earth, in ecology and Earth science.
The six most frequently occurring elements linked with organic molecules are
Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulphur.
On Earth, the six most important elements for life are Carbon, Nitrogen,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulphur. These elements exist in different
chemical forms and can be found in various places such as the atmosphere,
land, water, or beneath the Earth's surface. Living organisms use these
elements in different ways, for example, Hydrogen and Oxygen are essential
components of water and organic molecules, while Carbon is found in all
organic molecules. Nitrogen is a vital component of nucleic acids and proteins,
and Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and phospholipids that form
biological membranes. Lastly, Sulphur plays a crucial role in the three-
dimensional structure of proteins.
The following provides a thorough description of biogeochemical cycles:

The Water Cycle

The water we consume cycles indefinitely through the ecosystem, which is
known as the Hydrological Cycle. The human body is composed of 60-70
percent water. 97.5 percent of the water on Earth is salt water. More than 99
percent of the remaining water is groundwater or ice. As a result, lakes and
rivers contain less than 1% of freshwater. Many creatures rely on this small
fraction, and its absence can have a severe impact on ecosystems.
The Sun's energy, which heats the seas and other surface waters, drives the
water cycle. This causes liquid surface water to evaporate and frozen water to
sublimate, releasing vast amounts of water into the sky as water vapour.
Water vapour condenses into clouds as liquid or frozen droplets over time,
eventually leading to precipitation (rain, snow, hail), which returns water to
the Earth's surface. Rain that falls on the Earth's surface may evaporate, run off
the surface, or soak into the earth. Runoff can make its way to the oceans via
streams and lakes.
A considerable amount of water evaporates immediately from plant surfaces.
What remains touches the dirt and begins to sink. Surface runoff occurs only
when the soil becomes saturated with water after a hard storm. Plant roots
can absorb water from the soil. Some of this water will be used by the plant for
metabolism, and some will be consumed by animals that eat the plants, but
much of it will be lost back to the atmosphere via a process known as
transpiration.

Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is the flow of carbon in its elemental and mixed states on
Earth. Carbon is found as carbonates in minerals and as carbon dioxide gas in
the environment in its combined state as diamond and graphite.
All green plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight for photosynthesis, which
results in the production of carbohydrates and other organic compounds.
Thus, carbon is stored in the plant. The animals that consume plants, obtain
the carbon stored in the plants. When these animals decompose, this
carbon is released back into the atmosphere. Animals' cellular respiration also
returns carbon to the environment.
Also, the green plants, when dead, are buried into the soil that gets converted
into fossil fuels made from carbon. When these fossil fuels are burned, they
release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. A large amount of carbon dioxide
is created, which is stored in the form of fossil fuel (coal and oil) and can be
collected for a variety of commercial and non-commercial applications. When
these fuels are used in industries, the carbon released back into the
atmosphere during combustion.
Photosynthesis: Both terrestrial and aquatic plants use CO2 for
photosynthesis. In the presence of sunshine and chlorophyll, the inorganic
form of carbon is transformed into organic matter by this process. Plants fix
and assimilate carbon dioxide in this manner. They consume some of it for
their own life activities, while the remainder is stored as biomass, which is
available to heterotrophs as food.
Respiration: Respiration is a metabolic process that is the inverse of
photosynthesis in which food is oxidised to liberate energy (to conduct the
various living activities) as well as carbon dioxide and water. As a result of this
procedure, atmospheric carbon dioxide is recovered.
Decomposition: After organisms die, decomposers break down the leftover
dead organic materials and release the residual carbon into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 (78%) and is fixed either physically
by lightning or biologically by some microbes. Nitrogen enters the living world
via bacteria, both free-living and symbiotic, which integrate nitrogen into their
organic molecules via specific biochemical processes. Nitrogen fixation is the
process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3), which spontaneously
transforms into ammonium (NH4+) by some bacteria. Bacteria turn ammonium
into nitrites (NO2), which are then transformed into nitrates (NO3). Plants and
other producers use nitrogen-containing molecules to create organic
molecules such as DNA and proteins at this point. This nitrogen is now
available to consumers and is making its way up the food chain.
Organic nitrogen is especially significant in the study of ecosystem dynamics
because many ecosystem processes, such as primary production, are limited by
nitrogen availability. As illustrated in the figure below, bacteria gradually
convert organic nitrogen back into nitrogen gas after entering living systems.
Denitrification occurs when bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas,
allowing it to re-enter the atmosphere.

Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting free

nitrogen from the environment into a physiologically suitable form or
nitrogenous substances.
There are two types of this process:
(a) Physicochemical or non-biological nitrogen fixation;
(b) Biological nitrogen fixation.

1. Physicochemical or non-biological nitrogen fixation

During the physicochemical process of nitrogen fixing, atmospheric nitrogen
interacts with oxygen (as ozone) during lightning or electrical discharges in the
clouds, resulting in the formation of various nitrogen oxides:
N2, + 2(O) Electric = 2NO
2NO + 2 (O) Discharge = 2NO
2
,
2NO2 + (O) = N
2
O
5
2NO + 2 (O) Discharge = 2NO2
2NO2 + (O) = N2O5
Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater and, once reaching the earth's surface,
combine with mineral molecules to generate nitrates and other nitrogenous
chemicals:
N2O5 + H2O = 2HNO3
2HNO3 + CaCO2 = Ca(NO3) + CO2 + H2O
Some nitrogenous chemicals are generated through various forms of burning
and are washed down with rain water. Nitrogen and hydrogen react to
generate ammonia at high pressure and temperature. (industrial nitrogen
fixation).

2. Biological nitrogen fixation

Biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by certain Prokaryotes. Some blue-
green algae fix considerable amounts of nitrogen in the oceans, lakes, and
soils. Symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) inhabiting the root nodules of legumes as
well as species of alder, buckbrush, and a number of other non-leguminous
genera, and symbiotic blue-green algae (species of Nostoc, Anabaena, etc.)
found in free state or in the thalli of Anthoceros, Salvenia, Azolla, coralloid
roots of Cycas fix atmospheric nitrogen. The relationship is mutualistic because
the bacteria take energy from the plants to fix nitrogen, which is then made
accessible to the host plants and other plants in the community.
Certain free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Azotobacter, Clostridium,
Beijerinckia, Derxia, and Rhdospirillium, fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Frankia, an actinomycetous fungus found in the roots of Alnus, Percia,
Casuarina, and other plants, is also a nitrogen fixer. Nitrogen-fixing organisms
mix atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen from the respiratory system to
generate ammonia, which subsequently interacts with organic acids to form
amino acids.

Nitrogen assimilation: Green plants absorb organic nitrogen in the form of

nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia, which is then transformed into nitrogenous
organic molecules. Nitrates are first broken down into ammonia, which then
mixes with organic acids to generate amino acids. Aminoacids are necessary
for the creation of proteins, enzymes, chlorophylls, nucleic acids, and other
compounds. Plant proteins supply the nitrogen required by animals.
Plant proteins are not directly absorbed by animals. During digestion, they are
broken down into amino acids, which are subsequently absorbed and
processed into animal proteins, nucleic acids, and so on.

Ammonification: A variety of microorganisms, particularly actinomycetes

and bacilli, act on the dead organic remnants of plants and animals, as well as
animal excreta. (Bacillus ramosus, B. vulgaris, B. mesenterilus). These
organisms use organic chemicals in their metabolism and produce ammonia.

Nitrification: Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrosogloea, and Nitrospira

bacteria in oceans and soils convert ammonia to nitrites, which are then
converted to nitrates. In their metabolism, these bacteria largely utilise the
energy of dead organic matter.
2NH4+ + 2O2 = NO2- + 2H2O + energy
Several microorganisms, including Penicillium species, Nitrobacter, Nitrocystis,
and others, convert nitrites to nitrates. Nitrocystis oceanus is a common
marine autotroph that does nitrification to obtain energy.
2NO2- + 2O2 = NO3- + energy
Some nitrates are also made available through weathering of nitrate
containing rocks.
Denitrification: Certain microorganisms break down ammonia and nitrates
into free nitrogen. Denitrification is the name given to this procedure.
Denitrifying microorganisms include Thiobacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus
denitrificans, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
2NO-3 ----- 2NO-2 ----- 2NO ----- N2O N2
Sedimentation: Soil nitrates are carried down to the sea or leached deep
into the earth along with percolating water. Thus, nitrates lost from the soil
surface are locked up in the rocks, a process known as nitrogen sedimentation.
Rock nitrogen is only released when the rocks are exposed and worn. As a
result, a considerable portion of nitrogen gets fixed and stored in plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Nitrogen departs the biological system in the
same proportion that it enters from the atmosphere, and the input and
outflow of nitrogen in the ecosystem are balanced.

:
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a necessary nutrient for all life activities. It is a major
component of nucleic acids and phospholipids, and as calcium phosphate, it
contributes to the structural components of our bones. Phosphorus is
frequently the limiting nutrient, but it is required for growth.
In nature, phosphorus occurs as the phosphate ion. (PO43-). In addition to
phosphate runoff caused by human activity, natural surface runoff occurs
when phosphates are leached from phosphate-containing rock through
weathering, causing phosphates to enter rivers, lakes, and the ocean.
Phosphate-containing ocean sediments are formed mostly from the bodies and
excretions of ocean creatures. Volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust, on the
other hand, may be substantial phosphate sources. The raising of the Earth's
surface then moves this sediment to land over geologic time.
Phosphorus is also reciprocally exchanged between phosphate dissolved in the
ocean and marine organisms. The transport of phosphate from the ocean to
the land and through the soil is extraordinarily slow with the average
phosphate ion spending 20,000 to 100,000 years in the water.

Sulphur Cycle
Sulphur is a necessary element for the molecules of living organisms. It plays a
role in the production of proteins. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is found in the
atmosphere and enters the atmosphere in three ways: first, from the
decomposition of organic molecules; second, from volcanic activity and
geothermal vents; and third, from human combustion of fossil fuels.
Sulphur is deposited on land in four ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the
atmosphere, rock weathering, and geothermal vents. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is
abundant in the atmosphere, and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulphur
is dissolved as weak sulphuric acid. (H2SO4). Sulphur can also fall straight from
the atmosphere in a process known as fallout. Sulphur is also released into the
soil as sulphur-containing rocks weather. These rocks are formed from ocean
sediments that have been transferred to land via geologic uplifting of ocean
sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems can then benefit from soil sulphates (SO42-),
which enter the food chain via plant roots. Sulphur is released back into the
atmosphere as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas when these plants breakdown and
die.
Sulfur enters the ocean through runoff from land, air fallout, and underwater
geothermal vents. Chemoautotrophs use sulphur as a biological energy source
in some habitats. This sulphur, in the form of sulphates, then benefits marine
ecosystems.

Sedimentary cycles
Mineral elements required by living organisms are initially derived from
inorganic sources. Available forms are salts that dissolve in soil water.
Mineral cycles are divided into two phases:
(i) the salt solution phase
(ii) the rock phase.
Weathering removes mineral salts from the earth's crust. Soluble salts are
then introduced into the water cycle. Water movement transports minerals
from the soil to streams, lakes, and eventually to the sea, where they remain
indefinitely. Other salts are returned to the earth's crust (outside) by
sedimentation. They are absorbed into sediments or rock beds, and after
weathering, they rejoin the cycle. Mineral solutions are taken up by plants and
some animals from their surroundings. Following the demise of living
organisms, nutrients are returned to the soil and water by decomposers
(bacteria and fungus) and transformers. Green plants on one end and
decomposers on the other play critical roles in nutrient transport.

Gaseous cycle (Oxygen cycle)

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical transition of oxygen atoms between
different oxidation states in ions, oxides, and molecules via redox reactions
(oxidation-reduction events) occurring inside and between the planet's
spheres/reservoirs.  The term oxygen is commonly used in the literature to
refer to the most prevalent oxygen allotrope (element changeable form),
elemental/diatomic oxygen (O2), because it is a common result or reactant of
many biogeochemical redox reactions throughout the cycle. The oxygen cycle
processes are classified as biological or geological, and they are evaluated as
either a source (O2 production) or a sink (O2 consumption). (O2
consumption).
Reservoirs: Oxygen is one of the most abundant elements on Earth,
accounting for a considerable amount of each major reservoir. The silicate and
oxide minerals of the crust and mantle are by far the greatest store of Earth's
oxygen (99.5% by weight). The combined weight of the Earth's atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere is less than 0.05% of the overall mass of the
planet.  Aside from O2, other oxygen atoms can be found in diverse forms
across the surface reservoirs in the molecules of biomass, H2O, CO2, HNO3,
NO, NO2, CO, H2O2, O3, SO2, H2SO4, MgO, CaO, AlO, SiO2, and PO4.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere contains 20.9% oxygen by volume, which
translates to approximately 34x1018 mol of oxygen. Ozone (O3), carbon
dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), and sulphur and nitrogen oxides are all
oxygen-containing molecules in the atmosphere. (SO2, NO, N2O, etc.).
Biosphere: The Biosphere contains 22% oxygen by volume, primarily as a
component of organic molecules and water molecules. The Hydrosphere
contains 33% oxygen by volume, primarily as a component of water
molecules, with dissolved molecules comprising free oxygen and carbonic
acids.
Lithosphere: The lithosphere contains 46.6% oxygen by volume, primarily as
silica minerals (SiO2) and other oxide minerals.