‭Chapter 7 - DNA & RNA‬ ‭2.‬ R ‭ emove the protein.

This can be done in several‬

‭➢‬ 1 ‭ 865 -‬‭Gregor Mendel:‬‭Introduces the concept of‬
‭heredity.‬
‭➢‬ ‭1909 -‬‭Wilhelm Johannsen:‬‭Coins the term “Gene”‬
‭➢‬ ‭1911 -‬‭Thomas Hunt Morgan:‬‭Discovers that genes‬
‭are responsible for inheritance.‬
‭➢‬ ‭1929 -‬‭Phoebus Levene:‬‭Discovers that DNA is‬
‭made up of nucleotides, phosphates, sugars, and 4‬
‭bases.‬
‭○‬ ‭Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of‬
‭nucleic acids (RNA & DNA).‬
‭➢‬ ‭1944 -‬‭Oswald Avery:‬‭Shows that DNA can‬
‭transform the properties of cells. However, this idea‬
‭was not universally accepted.‬
‭➢‬ ‭1950 -‬‭Erwin Chargaff:‬‭Shows that:‬
‭○‬ ‭Adenine + Guanine = Tymine + Cytosine =‬
‭50%‬
‭ways, including treatment with protease.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Hydrolyze the DNA to release the bases from the‬
‭DNA strands. A common way to do this is by strong‬
‭acid treatment.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Separate the bases by chromatography. Paper‬
‭chromatography provides an easy way to separate‬
‭the four types of bases.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Extract bands from paper into solutions and‬
‭determine the amounts of each base by spectroscopy.‬
‭Each base will absorb light at a particular wavelength.‬
‭By examining the absorption profile of a sample of the‬
‭base, it is then possible to calculate the amount of the‬
‭base.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Compare the base content in the DNA from different‬
‭organisms.‬

‭ Few Key Events Led to the Discovery of the Structure of‬

A
‭DNA‬

‭●‬ ‭ NA as an acidic substance present in the nucleus‬

D
‭was first identified by‬‭Friedrich Meicher‬‭in 1868.‬
‭○‬ ‭He named it as “Nuclein”‬

‭●‬ ‭Hershey & Chase Experiment:‬

‭○‬ ‭Experiment 1:‬‭Testing proteins‬‭- (Protein‬
‭coats radiolabelled -> Bacteria infected ->‬
‭NO radioactivity enters cells) (Phage grown‬
‭w/ radioactive sulfur -> Centrifuge ->‬
‭Radioactivity in supernatant) =‬‭Proteins are‬
‭not genetic material.‬

‭○‬ ‭ xperiment 2:‬‭Testing DNA‬‭- (Phage DNA‬

E
‭radiolabelled -> Bacteria infected ->‬
‭Radioactivity enters cells) (Phage grown w/‬
‭radioactive phosphorus -> Centrifuge ->‬
‭Radioactivity in pellet) =‬‭DNA is the genetic‬
‭material‬

‭●‬ ‭Erwin Chargaff’s Experiment:‬

‭○‬ ‭Chargaff pioneered many of biochemical‬
‭technique for the isolation, purification and‬
‭measurement of nucleic acids from living‬
‭cells.‬
‭○‬ ‭It was known that DNA contained the four‬
‭bases: A, G, C, & T.‬
‭○‬ ‭Chargeff analyzed the base composition of‬
‭DNA isolated from many different species.‬

‭➔‬ T
‭ HE HYPOTHESIS: An analysis of the base‬
‭composition of DNA in different species may reveal‬
‭important features about the structure of DNA.‬
‭1.‬ F
‭ or each type of cell, extract the chromosomal‬
‭material. This can be done in a variety of ways,‬
‭including the use of high salt, detergent, or mild alkali‬
‭treatment. Note: The chromosomes contain both DNA‬
‭and protein.‬
‭➔‬ I‭nterpretation of Data: The compelling observation‬
‭was that:‬
‭◆‬ ‭Percentage of Adenine = Percentage of‬
‭Thymine‬
‭◆‬ ‭Percentage of Cytosine = Percentage of‬
‭Guanine‬
‭➔‬ ‭This observation became known as‬ ‭Chargaff’s Rule.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rosalind Franklin & Maurice Wilkins:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Rosalind Franklin‬‭:‬
‭◆‬ ‭Worked in same laboratory as Maurice‬
‭Wilkins.‬
‭◆‬ ‭Study X-ray diffraction to study wet fibers of‬
‭DNA.‬
‭◆‬ ‭The diffraction pattern is interpreted (using‬
‭mathematical theory). This can ultimately‬
‭provide information concerning the structure‬
‭of the molecule.‬
‭◆‬ ‭She used X-ray Crystallography.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Two Forms of DNA:‬
‭◆‬ ‭In 1951, Rosalind Franklin discovered the‬
‭Two forms of DNA through her X-ray‬
‭diffraction images.‬
‭●‬ ‭Watson & Crick’s Work:‬
‭○‬ ‭In 1951, James Watson traveled from the‬
‭United States to work with Francis Crick at‬
‭Cambridge University.‬
‭○‬ ‭Watson and Crick used the‬‭“Model Building”‬
‭approach.‬
‭○‬ ‭They physically built models out of wire,‬
‭sheet metal, nuts, and bolts to come up with/‬
‭the structure of DNA.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Why did they build models?‬
‭○‬ ‭“‬‭Sometimes the fingers can grasp what the‬
‭mind cannot”‬‭(Biology the Science of Life)‬
‭○‬ ‭ NA consists of two chains of nucleotides in‬
D ‭important discoveries of the 20th century it‬
‭a ladder-like structure which is twisted‬
‭(Double Helix)‬
‭➢‬ U
‭ sed data of M.H.F Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin,‬
‭early 50’s‬
‭○‬ ‭Wilkins and Franklin studied the structure of‬
‭DNA crystals using X-rays.‬
‭○‬ ‭The X pattern suggested the structure of‬
‭DNA was a helix.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Used data of Erwin Chargaff, 1940 and early 50s‬
‭○‬ ‭Chargaff’s Rule: His data showed that in‬
‭each species, the percent of A equals the‬
‭percentage of T, and the percent of G equals‬
‭the percent of C.‬
‭➢‬ W
‭ atson was shown this picture by Wilkins in early‬
‭1953. From the picture, it was possible to calculate:‬
‭1.‬ ‭The distance between bases (3.4 nm)‬
‭2.‬ ‭The length of the period (0.34 nm)‬
‭3.‬ ‭The rise of the helix (36 degrees)‬
‭➔‬ O
‭ n February 28, 1953, Francis Crick walked into the‬
‭Eagle pub in Cambridge, England, and as James‬
‭Watson later recalled, announced that “we had found‬
‭the secret of life.:” Actually, they had. That morning,‬
‭Watson and Crick had figured out the structure of‬
‭deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA. And that structure - a‬
‭“double helix” that can “unzip” to make copies of itself‬
‭- confirmed suspicious that DNA carries life’s‬
‭hereditary information.‬
‭◆‬ I‭n 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick‬
‭described a very simple but famous Double‬
‭Helix model for the structure of DNA.‬
‭◆‬ F
‭ rancis Crick and James Watson w/ Maurice‬
‭Wilkins received the‬‭1962 Nobel Prize‬‭for‬
‭discovering the molecular structure of‬
‭deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).‬
‭◆‬ W
‭ idely regarded as one of the most‬
‭has led the way to the mapping and‬
‭deciphering of all the genes in the human‬
‭chromosomes.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Watson and Crick Model:‬
‭◆‬ ‭The sides of the ladder are made up of‬
‭alternating molecules of‬‭phosphate and‬
‭deoxyribose.‬
‭◆‬ ‭The bases make up the rings of the ladder‬
‭and are attached by a weak chemical bond‬
‭called‬‭hydrogen bonds.‬
‭◆‬ ‭The DNA double helix is‬‭anti-parallel‬‭, which‬
‭means that the 5’ end of one strand is paired‬
‭with/ the 3’ end of its complementary strand‬
‭(and vice versa)‬
‭◆‬ ‭5’------------->3’‬
‭◆‬ ‭3’------------->5’‬
 ‭◆‬ T
‭ wo hydrogen bonds connect T to A; three‬
‭hydrogen bonds connect G to C.‬

‭➔‬ W
‭ atson & Crick quickly published their Scientific‬
‭Journal called‬‭“‬‭Nature‬‭” on April 25, 1953.‬

‭●‬ ‭THE ROAD TO THE DOUBLE HELIX‬

‭The Nitrogenous Bases‬

‭➢‬ ‭They are divided into two groups:‬

‭○‬ ‭Pyrimidines‬‭(Made of one 6-member ring) -‬
‭Thymine & Cytosine‬
‭○‬ ‭Purines‬‭(Made of a 6-member ring, fused to‬
‭a 5-member ring) - Adenine & Guanine‬
‭○‬ ‭The rings are not only made of carbon‬

‭Nitrogenous bases of DNA & RNA‬

‭DNA‬

➢
‭ ‬ D ‭ eoxyribonucleic acid‬
‭➢‬ ‭DNA - a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides‬
‭➢‬ ‭Usually double-stranded and has a double-helix‬
‭structure.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Found in chromosomes, mitochondria, and‬
‭chloroplasts.‬
‭➢‬ ‭It acts as the genetic material in most of the‬
‭organisms.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Carries the genetic information.‬ ‭Nucleotide Structure‬
‭➢‬ N
‭ ucleotides are formed by the condensation of a‬
‭DNA Structure‬ ‭sugar, phosphate, and one of the 4 bases.‬

‭➢‬ D ‭ NA structure is often divided into four different‬

‭levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.‬
‭➢‬ ‭DNA has three main components:‬
‭1. Deoxyribose (a pentose sugar)‬
‭2. Base (there are four different ones)‬
‭3. Phosphate‬

‭➢‬ N
‭ ucleotides are linked together by‬‭covalent bonds‬
‭called‬‭phosphodiester linkage.‬
‭➢‬ C
‭ ovalent bonds: A chemical bond that involves‬ ‭➢‬ T
‭ he two strands are coiled in a‬‭right-handed fashion‬
‭sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a‬ ‭(Clockwise)‬‭. The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm (a‬
‭molecule.‬ ‭nanometer is one billionth of a meter, that is, 10‬‭-9‬ ‭m),‬
‭and there are roughly 10 base pairs (bp) in each turn.‬
‭Consequently, the distance between a bp in a helic is‬
‭approximately equal to 0.34 nm.‬

‭➢‬ T
‭ he plane of one base pair stacks over the other in a‬
‭double helix. This, in addition to H-bonds, confers‬
‭stability of the helical structure.‬

‭➢‬ T ‭ here are two asymmetrical grooves on the outside of‬

‭the helix:‬
‭○‬ ‭Major groove‬
‭○‬ ‭Minor groove‬
‭➢‬ ‭Groove:‬‭any furrow (slight depression in the‬
‭smoothness of a surface) or channel on a bodily‬
‭structure or part.‬
‭○‬ ‭Certain proteins can bind within these‬
‭grooves.‬
‭○‬ ‭They can thus interact with/ a particular‬
‭sequence of bases.‬

‭DNA Double Helix & Hydrogen bonding‬

‭Salient features of the Double-helix structure of DNA:‬

‭➢‬ I‭t is made of two polynucleotide chains, where the‬

‭backbone is constituted by sugar-phosphate, and the‬
‭bases project inside.‬

‭➢‬ T
‭ he two chains have anti-parallel polarity. It means if‬ ‭Structure of Double-helix‬
‭one chain has the polarity 5’ -> 3’, the other has 3’ ->‬
‭5’.‬ ‭➢‬ ‭Three major forms:‬
‭○‬ ‭B-DNA‬
‭○‬ ‭A-DNA‬
‭○‬ ‭Z-DNA‬

‭●‬ ‭B-DNA:‬‭is biologically‬‭THE MOST COMMON‬

‭○‬ ‭It is a 𝝰-helix meaning that it has a‬
‭Right-handed, clockwise, or spiral.‬
‭○‬ ‭Complementary base paiiring‬
‭■‬ ‭A-T‬
‭■‬ ‭G-C‬
‭○‬ ‭Ideal B-DNA has 10 bp per turn (360°‬
‭rotation of helix)‬
‭○‬ ‭So each base is twisted 36° relative to‬
‭adjacent bases.‬
 ‭‬
○ ‭ ase pairs are 0.34 nm apart.‬
B
‭○‬ ‭So complete rotation of the molecule is 3.4‬ ‭DNA Supercoiling‬
‭nm.‬
‭○‬ ‭Axis passes through the middle of each base‬ ‭➢‬ D ‭ NA supercoiling‬‭refers to the over or under-winding‬
‭pair.‬ ‭of strands.‬
‭‬
○ ‭Minor Groove is Narrow and shallow.‬ ‭➢‬ ‭DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging‬
‭○‬ ‭Major Groove is Wide and deep.‬ ‭within all cells. Because the length of DNA can be‬
‭○‬ ‭This structure‬‭exists‬‭when‬‭plenty of water‬ ‭thousands of times that of cells, packaging this‬
‭surrounds the molecule, and there is no‬ ‭material into the cell or nucleus (in Eukaryotes) is a‬
‭unusual base sequence in DNA-Condition‬ ‭difficult feat.‬
‭that is likely to be present in the cells.‬ ‭➢‬ ‭Supercoiling of DNA reduces the space and allows for‬
‭○‬ ‭B-DNA structure is the most stable‬ ‭much more DNA to be packaged.‬
‭configuration for a random sequence of‬
‭nucleotides under physiological conditions.‬

‭●‬ ‭A-DNA:‬
‭○‬ ‭Right-handed helix‬
‭○‬ ‭Wider and flatter than B-DNA‬
‭○‬ ‭11 bp per turn‬
‭○‬ ‭Its bases are tilted away from the main axis‬
‭of the molecule.‬
‭○‬ ‭Major Groove - Narrow, Deep‬
‭○‬ ‭Minor Groove - Broad, Shallow‬
‭○‬ ‭Observed when less water is present. (i.e.,‬
‭Dehydration condition).‬
‭○‬ ‭A-DNA has been observed in two context:‬
‭■‬ ‭Active site of DNA polymerase‬
‭(~3bp)‬
‭■‬ ‭Gram (+) bacteria undergoing‬ ‭Nucleosome Structure‬
‭sporulation.‬
‭➢‬ N ‭ ucleosomes‬‭are the basic unit of the chromatin‬
‭●‬ ‭Z-DNA:‬ ‭organization.‬
‭○‬ ‭A left-handed helix‬ ‭➢‬ ‭In Eukaryotes, DNA is associated with/ proteins. (In‬
‭○‬ ‭Seen in conditions of‬‭High salt‬ ‭prokaryotes, DNA is naked)‬
‭concentration‬‭.‬ ‭➢‬ ‭Nulceosomes = basic bead-like unit of DNA‬
‭○‬ ‭In this form, sugar-phosphate backbones‬ ‭packaging‬
‭zigzag back and forth, giving rise to the‬ ‭○‬ ‭Made of a segment of DNA wound around a‬
‭name Z-DNA (for zigzag).‬ ‭protein core that is composed of 2 copies of‬
‭○‬ ‭12 bp per turn.‬ ‭each 4 types of Histones.‬
‭○‬ ‭A deep Minor Groove‬ ‭➢‬ ‭Nucleosomes have:‬
‭○‬ ‭No discernible Major Groove‬ ‭○‬ ‭8 Histones in the core‬
‭○‬ ‭Part of some active genes from Z-DNA,‬ ‭○‬ ‭DNA wrapped twice around the core‬
‭suggesting that Z-DNA may play a role in‬ ‭○‬ ‭One Histone holding the Nucleosome‬
‭regulating gene transcription.‬ ‭together‬
‭○‬ ‭A DNA ‘linker’ continues towards the next‬
‭nucleosome.‬
‭➢‬ ‭The DNA has a negatively charged backbone‬
‭(because of PO‬‭4‭3‬ -‬ ‭group)‬
‭➢‬ ‭The Protein (Histones) are positively charged.‬
‭➢‬ ‭The DNA and Protein are electromagnetically‬
‭attracted to each other to form chromatin.‬
 ‭RNA‬

➢
‭ ‬ R ‭ ibonucleic Acid‬
‭➢‬ ‭RNA is a polymer of ribonucleotides linked together‬
‭by‬‭phosphodiester linkage‬‭.‬
‭➢‬ ‭RNA was the first genetic material.‬
‭➢‬ ‭In 1967, Carl Woese‬‭found the‬‭catalytic‬‭properties of‬
‭RNA and speculated that the‬‭earliest forms of life‬
‭relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to‬
‭catalyze biochemical reactions.‬
‭➢‬ ‭Their theories were not validated until the work of‬
‭Nobel Prize laureate‬‭Thomas R. Cech.‬‭In the 1960s,‬
‭Cech was studying the splicing of RNA in a‬ ‭Covalent bonding between Nucleotides‬
‭single-celled organism,‬‭Tetrahymena thermophila‬‭,‬
‭when he discovered that an‬‭unprocessed RNA‬ ‭➢‬ N ‭ ucleotides are linked together by‬‭covalent‬
‭molecule could splice itself.‬‭He announced his‬ ‭bonds‬‭called‬‭phosphodiester linkage.‬
‭discovery in 1982 and became the first to show that‬ ‭➢‬ ‭Covalent bonds: A chemical bond that‬
‭RNA has‬‭catalytic functions.‬ ‭involves sharing a pair of electrons between‬
‭➢‬ ‭Usually single-stranded and helical in structure‬ ‭atoms in a molecule.‬
‭➢‬ ‭But double-stranded is also present in some viruses.‬

‭RNA Structure‬

‭➢‬ ‭There are also three main components‬

‭○‬ ‭Phosphate Group‬
‭○‬ ‭Sugar (Ribose)Nitrogenous Bases‬

‭The Nitrogenous Bases‬

‭➢‬ ‭They are divided into two groups:‬

‭○‬ ‭Pyrimidines‬‭(Made of one 6 member ring) -‬
‭Uracil & Cytosine‬
‭○‬ ‭Purines‬‭(Made of a 6 member ring, fused to‬
‭a 5 member ring) - Adenine & Guanine‬
‭○‬ ‭The rings are not only made of carbon‬
‭RNA Structure‬
‭➢‬ N
‭ ucleotides:‬‭are formed by the condensation of a‬
‭sugar, phosphate and one of the 4 bases‬
‭Hydrogen Bonding‬
‭➢‬ U ‭ sually, RNA is single-stranded, but in some viruses,‬
‭RNA is present in double-stranded form.‬
‭➢‬ ‭The bases in two strands are paired through‬
‭hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) to form base pairs (bp).‬
‭Adenine‬‭forms two hydrogen bonds w/‬‭Uracil‬‭from‬
‭the opposite strand and vice-versa. Similarly,‬
‭Guanine‬‭is bonded with/‬‭Cytosine‬‭with/ three‬
‭H-bonds.‬
 ‭dsRNA Structure‬
‭➢‬ ‭There are double-stranded RNA structures‬
‭○‬ ‭RNA can fold back on itself‬
‭○‬ ‭Depends on base sequence‬
‭○‬ ‭Gives stem (double-strand) and loop‬
‭(single-strand structures)‬
‭➢‬ ‭Ds RNA has an A-like conformation‬
‭○‬ ‭Steric clashes between 2’ - OH groups‬
‭prevent the B-like conformation.‬
‭1.)‬ P ‭ rimary structure -‬‭The nucleotide sequence of all‬
‭Types of RNA‬
‭➢‬ I‭n all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, three‬
‭main classes of RNA molecules exist:‬
‭○‬ ‭Messenger RNA (mRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Transfer RNA (tRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)‬
‭➢‬ ‭The other are:‬
‭○‬ ‭Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Micro RNA (miRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Small interfering RNA (siRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)‬
‭●‬ ‭Messenger RNA (mRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭All members of the class function as‬
‭messengers carrying the information in a‬
‭gene to the protein synthesizing machinery‬
‭●‬
‭●‬ ‭Transfer RNA (t-RNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Are the smallest of three major species of‬
‭RNA molecules.‬
‭○‬ ‭They have 74-95 nucleotide residues.‬
‭○‬ ‭They transfer the amino acids from the‬
‭cytoplasm to the protein synthesizing‬
‭machinery, hence the name tRNA.‬
‭○‬ ‭They are also called Adapter molecules‬
‭since they act as adapters for the translation‬
‭of the sequence of nucleotides of the mRNA‬
‭in specific amino acids.‬
‭○‬ ‭There are at least 20 species of tRNA, one‬
‭corresponding to each of the 20 amino acids‬
‭required for protein synthesis.‬
‭○‬ ‭tRNA‬‭is the only RNA species that contains‬
‭the nucleoside‬‭thymidine‬‭.‬
‭Structure‬
‭the tRNA molecules allows extensive intrastrand‬
‭complementarity that generates a secondary‬
‭structure.‬
‭2.)‬ ‭Secondary structure -‬‭Each single tRNA shows‬
‭extensive internal base pairing and acquires a clover‬
‭leaf-like structure. The structure is stabilized by‬
‭hydrogen bonding between the bases and is a‬
‭consistent feature.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Secondary structure (Cloverleaf structure)‬
‭◆‬ ‭All tRNA contains 5 main arms or loops,‬
‭which are as follows:‬
‭●‬ ‭Acceptor arm‬
‭●‬ ‭Anticodon arm‬
‭●‬ ‭D HU arm (DihydroUracil)‬
‭●‬ ‭Tψ C arm (Thymidine‬
‭Pseudouridine Cytosine‬
‭●‬ ‭Extra arm‬
‭Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)‬
‭○‬ ‭Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid (rRNA)‬‭is the‬
‭RNA component of the‬‭ribosome‬‭, and is‬
‭essential for‬‭protein synthesis‬‭in all living‬
‭organisms.‬
‭○‬ ‭The function of the rRNA molecules in the‬
‭ribosomal particle is not fully understood, but‬
‭they are necessary for ribosomal assembly‬
 ‭ nd seem to play key roles in the binding of‬
a ‭Differences Between RNA and DNA‬
‭mRNA to ribosomes and its translation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Recent studies suggest that an rRNA‬
‭component performs the peptidyl transferase‬
‭activity and thus is an enzyme (a ribozyme).‬
‭○‬ ‭It constitutes the predominant material within‬
‭the ribosome, which is approximately 60%‬
‭rRNA and 40% protein by weight.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ribosomes contain two major rRNAs and 50‬
‭or more proteins.‬
‭○‬ ‭The ribosomal RNAs form two subunits: the‬
‭large subunit (LSU) and the small subunit‬
‭(SSU). The LSU rRNA acts as a‬‭ribozyme‬‭,‬
‭catalyzing‬‭peptide bond formation.‬

‭●‬ ‭ eterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) [Precursor‬

H
‭mRNA]‬
‭○‬ ‭In mammalian nuclei, hnRNA is the‬
‭immediate product of gene transcription.‬
‭○‬ ‭The nuclear product is heterogeneous in size‬
‭(Variable) and is very large.‬
‭○‬ ‭75% of hnRNA is degraded in the nucleus,‬
‭and only 25% is processed to mature mRNA.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mature mRNA is formed from the primary‬
‭transcript by capping, tailing, splicing, and‬
‭base modification.‬

‭Small RNA molecules‬

‭➢‬ ‭Major types of small RNA molecules:‬

‭○‬ ‭Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) - involved in‬
‭mRNA splicing.‬
‭○‬ ‭Small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) - directs the‬
‭modification of ribosomal RNAs.‬
‭○‬ ‭Micro RNA (miRNA) and short interfering‬
‭RNA (siRNA) - regular gene expression.‬