Journal of Building Engineering 51 (2022) 104282

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Study on preparation and mechanical properties of 3D printed

concrete with different aggregate combinations
Jianzhuang Xiao, Zhenyuan Lv, Zhenhua Duan *, Shaodan Hou
Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: 3D printed concrete (3DPC) properties are closely related to the characteristics of coarse aggre­
3D printed concrete gates and fine aggregates. In this paper, the role of recycled aggregates in 3DPC is considered and
Recycled coarse aggregates the printable inks with different aggregate combinations were well prepared. The mechanical
Recycled fine aggregates properties of 3DPC containing different aggregates were compared and analyzed, and the effect of
Aggregate combination recycled aggregates on the development of concrete properties was further investigated under
Mix design
different curing conditions. The results showed that the full recycled aggregate reduced the 3DPC
Mechanical properties
interlayer deformation by 3.1 mm at a height of 120 mm, and the minimum anisotropic
compressive strength of it was 16.36 MPa, approximately 67.15% of that of the cast-in-place one.
And compared to the full replacement of recycled coarse aggregates, the full replacement of
recycled fine aggregates in air curing facilitates the improvement of the mechanical properties of
the concrete, with an increase of 4.1 MPa at 28d, but with a negative impact in standard curing. In
addition, the reduction in mechanical properties with the combination of fully recycled coarse
and fine aggregates is less than the sum of the reduction with the single aggregate, under any type
of maintenance or pouring.

Nomenclature:

RCA Recycled coarse aggregate

NCA Natural coarse aggregate
RFA Recycled fine aggregate
NFA Natural fine aggregate
ITZ Interface transition zone
RCAC Recycled coarse aggregate concrete
RFAC Recycled fine aggregate concrete
RAC Recycled aggregate concrete
3DPC 3D printed concrete
CSC Cast-in-situ concrete
AC Aggregate combination
FRA Fully recycled aggregate
RACB Recycled coarse-fine aggregates combination

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhduan@tongji.edu.cn (Z. Duan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104282
Received 14 December 2021; Received in revised form 22 February 2022; Accepted 24 February 2022
Available online 8 March 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Xiao et al. Journal of Building Engineering 51 (2022) 104282

NACB Natural coarse-fine aggregates combination

RCACB Recycled coarse-natural fine aggregates combination
RFACB Recycled fine-natural coarse aggregates combination

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a technology that integrated computer-aided design, material processing and molding. It creates
solid objects by stacking specialized metallic, non-metallic and medical materials layer by layer according to extrusion, sintering,
melting, light curing, and spraying based on digital model files through software and computer numerical control (CNC) systems [1–4].
In contrast to the conventional processing mode of shaping and assembling raw materials, it is a “stack-up” method of manufacturing
by accumulating materials. This makes it possible to manufacture complex structural parts that were not possible in the past, due to the
constraints of traditional manufacturing methods [5]. The use of 3D printing in combination with cement-based materials was initiated
and continuously refined in the United States [6], mainly by using mortar to print concrete structures layer by layer and curing rapidly.
After years of development and exploration, 3DPC technology has been able to complete the printing of components and structures
which could be used in the construction of low-rise houses. The core process of 3DPC technology is to convert the target 3D component
structure s into a digital model, and to achieve rapid, refined, and personalized manufacturing. Compared with classical methods of
building concrete structures by molding, this technology could reduce labor consumption, the construction cost, and raw material
consumption, while improving construction efficiency [7–9]. 3DPC gets rid of the limitation of molds which could print various curved
and shaped structures to meet individual customization needs. Thus, its advantages shown in the field of building construction have
attracted a lot of attention. The advantages of 3D printing technology likewise impose new requirements on the concrete working
properties, and the process will also have an impact on the 3DPC performance [10]. The key issues involved in printing technology
include: component design, synergistic relationship between printing parameters and concrete material properties and hardening
performance characteristics and optimization [11]. Unlike 3D printed mortars, the addition of coarse aggregates places higher de­
mands on the performance of the printing ink. On the one hand, stacked layer printing will make the upper layer printing self-weight
increase, and the shape control ability of the lower layer printing strip demand increased. On the other hand, the printable properties of
concrete inks and the anisotropic mechanical properties after hydration are affected by the particle size, gradation, particle shape and
type of coarse aggregates. And the printable interlayer as a weak region of concrete properties has been a vital problem that many
scholars have sought to solve [12–14] (see Fig. 15).
Recycled aggregate (RA) is the product formed after the hydration and condensation of natural aggregates (NA) with cementitious
[15]. According to its particle size, it is classified as recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) and recycled fine aggregate (RFA), which are used
as natural stone (NCA) and natural river sand (NFA) substitutes respectively, to achieve sustainable and green requirements for
construction. The RA has higher water absorption and porosity than NA, as two-phase component materials (natural raw stone and
attached mortar) due to the presence of attached mortar [16]. Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), prepared by its partial or full
replacement, has been studied to show that the properties are influenced by the properties of the RA themselves [17,18]. As the RA
particle size increases, the total number of cracks in the RCAC rises more prominently compared to the cracks in the NAC [19]. The old
mortar on the RA still shows an appreciable percentage after the waste classification and sorting, which makes the material properties
composition become more discrete. And its performance readjustment and control become important for engineering applications
[20]. Over the years, the exploration of the performance of RA for product applications has been advancing. Han et al. [21] produced
Class II RCA, Quasi Class I RCA and Class I RCA by simple crushing, primary particle shaping and secondary particle shaping of waste
concrete, respectively. The effects of RCA quality and replacement ratio on the frost resistance of RAC were investigated. The results
showed that the frost resistance of both simple crushed RAC and primary particle shaped RAC tended to decrease as the replacement
ratio of RCA increased. And the frost resistance of secondary granular shaped RAC tends to increase and then decrease. Cui et al. [22]
formulated RAC with different strength levels using different mortar strengths and adhesion ratios on the surface of the RA as variables.
The relationship between the two ITZ existing within the RAC, and the concrete properties was evaluated by comparative strength and
carbonation tests. The results showed that the strength of the RAC was almost the same as that of the ordinary concrete when the RAC
of relatively low strength grade was prepared with high strength virgin concrete. The strength and adhesion ratio of the mortar on the
surface of the RA had little effect on the strength of the RAC, but the carbonation depth increased. The strength of RAC with relatively
low strength virgin concrete as RA is different from that of ordinary concrete when it is prepared with RAC of the same strength level or
higher. The strength and adhesion ratio of the mortar on the surface of the RCA have a greater effect on the strength of the RAC, and the
carbonation depth increases accordingly. Xu et al. [23] showed that although ordinary RAs were considered inferior, the performance
of high quality RAC did not decrease sharply with the increase in the amount of RA. Fonseca et al. [24] determined the effect of
different curing conditions on the mechanical properties of RCAs made from crushed CSC. The properties analyzed included
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance. And the RAC is affected by the con­
servation conditions in approximately the same way as the CSC. Xiao et al. [25] showed that significant voids and high concentrations
of calcium hydroxide could be found in both the old and new ITZs of the RAC. Based on nanoindentation studies, it was shown that the
thicknesses of the old and new ITZs were in the range of 40–50 μm and 55–65 μm, respectively. In addition, the effects of mix ratio,
aggregate type and age of hydration on ITZ properties in RFAC are discussed and evaluated.
The experiments of Benito et al. [26] showed that minimum performance requirements are still met at 40% RCA replacement ratio.
For the RCA replacement ratio of about 20% (which performed better when comparing different replacement ratios), the reduction for

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Table 1
The material properties of RCA and RFA.

aggregate particle size apparent density crush value water absorption moisture content mud content fineness modulus
3
RCA 4.75–10 mm 2634 kg/m 18.70% 7.91% 3.96% 1.00% –
RFA 0.15–4.75 mm 2272 kg/m3 – 13.30% 7.91% 2.88% 3.5

Fig. 1. Gradation curves of fine aggregates for printing.Figure 1 and 2

average compressive strength value of the specimens was less than 15% at 90d. This indicates that the influence of the RAs’ ITZ showed
a more pronounced negative effect with increasing admixture. Kou et al. [27] explored the property development of long-term hy­
drated specimens and found that both the compressive and splitting tensile strengths of RAC were lower than these of NAC. However,
the compressive and splitting tensile strengths of RAC increased more in the time period from 28d to 5 years. Manzi et al. [28]
investigated the short-term and long-term performance development patterns of RAC structures. The results showed that the fine RCA
affects the mechanical properties of the structure to some extent for different short and long-term properties. And this is mainly due to
the fact that RAs in the specimen may lead to the generation of intensive microscopic initial damage. Chakradhara et al. [29] carried
out comparative experiments at different replacement ratios, comparing specimens at 0%, 25%, 50% and 100% RA replacement with
NAC specimens. The experiments showed that the specimens wet cured in air for 7d exhibited better strength than the specimens full
cured underwater for all replacement ratios at 28d. The void volume and water absorption of the RAs were 2.61 and 1.82% higher than
those of NAC, respectively. The strength growth ratio of RAC was lower than that of NAC at 28d. Chee et al. [30] also suggested that
even though the RA was properly treated, there was still a small amount of waste impurities (about 1.4%). This indicates that it is
difficult to achieve mechanical properties equivalent to NAs from the RAs themselves (with old attached mortar) [31–34].
However, RAs due to their higher water absorption can contribute to achieve better early pseudoplastic properties of the ink [35].
This is beneficial for the buildable properties of 3DPC [36]. In addition, it is not poured and vibrated through the formwork because it
is formed in one piece. Therefore, the rough particle shape characteristics of RAs can lead to difficulties in the regulation of printing ink
properties, and at the same time may realize the effect of aggregate occlusion between the printed layers and enhance the performance
[37,38]. Ji et al. [39] presented the technical difficulties that the current 3DPC technology is not yet able to print ready-mixed concrete
with coarse aggregates, and there are difficulties in printability, extrudability and deformation control for the optimization of printing
inks mixed with coarse aggregates. Zhang et al. [40] reviewed the printing progress in terms of workability, mechanical properties and
design of construction solutions. It was found that 3DPC technology has more stringent material requirements, traditional CSC ratios
cannot be adapted to printable performance requirements, and mechanical properties are influenced by both materials and equipment.
Joh et al. [41] worked to investigate the mechanical properties of 3DPC specimens and the results showed that the compressive,
splitting and flexural strengths were significantly dependent on the bonding behavior of the printed specimen interlayer. Therefore,
compared to the cast-in-place method, the 3D printing process may reduce the disadvantages of the original poor performance of the
recycled bone and embody it as an enhanced buildable material, enabling a new application pathway[42,43].
In this paper, the different aggregate combinations refer specifically to the types of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate combi­
nations within the concrete. In 3D printed concrete, larger particle size coarse aggregates increase the difficulty of printing ink
extrudability and print quality. The greater apparent density of fine aggregates significantly affects the buildability of the printing ink
and the degree of print distortion. The consideration of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in different combinations, in particular the
development of print ink properties with the combination of coarse grain shape and higher water absorption of recycled materials,
contributes to a more holistic presentation of the intrinsic link between aggregates and concrete properties. The effects of different ACs,
casting processes and curing methods on the anisotropic mechanical properties of concrete are considered. And it provides a new
reference for enhancing the high value-added, intelligent and green sustainable application of construction solid waste resources.

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Table 2
The chemical parameters of cement (%).

component SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO TiO2 MgO SO3 Na2O K2O P2O5 others

content 21.1 4.3 2.5 65.9 0.1 1.5 2.3 0.1 0.5 0 1.7

Table 3
The material properties of NCA and NFA.

aggregate particle size apparent density crush value water absorption moisture content mud content fineness modulus
3
NCA 4.75–10 mm 2864 kg/m 11.20% 0.70% 0.46% 0.11% –
NFA 0.15–4.75 mm 2417 kg/m3 – 7.41% 3.62% – 2.14

Table 4
The mix design of different aggregate combination specimen (kg/m− 3).

AS component NAS RCAS RFAS RAS

coarse aggregate 588 541 588 541

fine aggregate 870 870 818 818
cement 444 444 444 444
fly ash 96.6 96.6 96.6 96.6
silica fume 41.4 41.4 41.4 41.4
mixing water 210 210 210 210
additional water – 21.37 44.09 65.46
thickener 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25%
retarder 0.025% 0.025% 0.025% 0.025%
superplasticizer 0.15% 0.20% 0.22% 0.30%
frictional resistance water – – 1.94% 1.94%

2. Materials and equipment

2.1. Recycled aggregate
The source of the RA is the product of a construction solid waste resource line in Shanghai. The original crystalline phase of the RCA
was siliceous mineral rock, and it was classified as Class III aggregate with reference to “Recycled coarse aggregate for construction” (GB/
T 25177–2010). The RCA and RFA were placed in a sheltered and ventilated overhead space before the test. The RCA is rough and
rounded, with the old mortar adhering to the surface in a partially wrapped state. The primary crystalline phase of the RFA is pre­
dominantly siliceous mineral rock with minimal calcareous mineral rock present, which may be related to the initial pouring and
processing crushing environment. The category of RFA is determined as Class III aggregate with reference to “Recycled fine aggregate for
concrete and mortar” (GB/T 25176–2010). The RFA is roughly rounded, the surface of the old mortar attached to present a large area or
wrapped state. It should be noted that due to the limitations of the crushing process, there may be mortar pieces within the RFA that do
not contain natural raw stone. As the proportion is relatively small compared to the overall fine aggregates, their effect on performance
dispersion is considered to be negligible. The material properties of RCA and RFA are shown in Table 1. The particle size of coarse
aggregate is 4.75 mm–10 mm, which is determined by the size of the printing nozzle and the size of the mixing blade. Larger aggregate
particle sizes make it difficult to ensure good continuous extrusion. The continuous gradation curve for fine aggregates is given in
Fig. 1, while the coarse aggregates used are not further graded within the grain size specification of “Pebble and crushed for construction "
(GB/T 14685–2011).

2.2. Admixture
Concrete printing inks have higher requirements for printability, buildability and pumpability than ordinary commercial cast-in-
situ concrete (CSC), so good printability of the inks is achieved by adding the following concrete admixtures. The quick-setting agent is
cellulose ether with a viscosity of 2 × 105, which is controlled by the dosing to meet the requirements of pumping and extruding
concrete inks and continuous printing. The retarder is sodium gluconate (industrial grade), which ensures the overall forming state of
the concrete ink while achieving the stability of the material state for continuous printing and high buildability. The silica fume grade
chosen is SF 90, which fills the pores between the cement particles, has a certain water retention effect and effectively reduces the
pumping resistance. In addition, it has a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the concrete after hardening. The super­
plasticizer is a polycarboxylate acid water reducing agent with a water reduction efficiency of 25%, which is suitable for regulating the
working properties of concrete under the incorporation of recycled materials. The cement was selected in the category of OPC 42.5 and
the fly ash was Class II fly ash. The NCA is siliceous mineral rock and the NFA is natural river sand. The cement, NCA and NFA material
parameters are shown in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.

2.3. Mix design

Four aggregate combinations were considered to design the concrete ink mix. The RFA is significantly rougher than natural river

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Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the 3D printing system.

Fig. 3. 3D concrete ink printer used for the experiment.

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of different aggregate combinations.

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Fig. 5. Schematic representation of full recycled aggregate combinations.

sand due to its particle shape. In order to overcome the extrusion requirements of pumping and printers, not only is additional water for
recycled aggregates considered, but frictional resistance water is also added to solve this problem. Therefore, the actual preparation of
RFA particle shape to consider whether to add friction water. In this paper, the use of Class III RFA, measured by the preliminary test of
the frictional resistance water accounted for 1.94% of the RFA weight can effectively avoid the impact of particle shape on printability.
At this time the amount of friction water accounted for 7.9% of the mix water, that will not have a large impact on the effective water-
cement ratio. The sample mix for each group is shown in Table 4.

2.4. 3D printer for concrete

The 3D concrete printer is a multi-axis rotating electronic control system and a three-way printing device with a print head that
includes a mixing blade, pumping device and extrusion outlet, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The concrete printer uses a programmed code
to control the print direction, print speed and extrusion speed. The print head is printed with a squeegee on both sides to provide shape
control and three-way extrusion to enhance interlayer adhesion.

3. Experiment
3.1. Preparation of aggregate combinations
Four different aggregate combinations were considered for their effect on the printability of the concrete ink and the anisotropic
mechanical properties after hardening. The NACB is defined as a NCA - NFA combination. The RCACB is defined as a 100%
replacement RCA - NFA combination. The RFACB is defined as a NCA - 100% replacement RFA combination. The RACB is defined as a
100% replacement RCA - 100% replacement ratio RFA combination (Fig. 4). It is important to note that only full replacement
component combinations are considered in this paper. The RAs are only considered as a combination component and not as a single
influencing factor. The ACs containing recycled material are poured in two parts after pre-saturated water. On the one hand, this is to
avoid the adsorption of the recycled material to the water reducing agent during mixing affecting the hydration process. On the other
hand, the variability of the AC is controlled in order to analysis the influence on the development of mechanical properties under
standard and air maintenance conditions.
The coarse and fine aggregates in a recycled aggregate combination are volume replacements for NAs. Compared to the RCA, the
RFA has a higher volume share for the same weight. When considering the influence of components within the AC, coarse and fine
aggregates were investigated as influencing factors to establish the AC relationships. As shown in Fig. 5, the establishment of the FRA
combination had been defined as shown in the following Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).
μAC = μAC (αRCA , αRFA , αRA ), IF(α = 1, 1, IF(∀α ≺ 1andα = 1, 0.5, IF(α ≺ 1, 0))) (1)

VRCA VRFA VRCA + VRFA

αRCA = αRFA = αRA = (2)
VRCA+NCA VRFA+NFA VRCA + VRFA + VNCA + VNFA
μAC is the full recycled aggregate combination replacement ratio;
αRCA is the recycled coarse aggregate replacement ratio;
αRFA is the recycled fine aggregate replacement ratio;
αRA is the recycled aggregate replacement ratio;
V is the volume of aggregate in the aggregate combination.

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Fig. 6. Comparison of concrete inks in printable condition.

Table 5
The mix design of aggregate combinations for the printability (%).

AC superplasticizer Mixing method

NACB 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.25 one-off mixing

RCACB 0.20 Pre-wetting of aggregates before mixing
RFACB 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.30 Pre-wetting of aggregates before mixing
RACB 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.30 0.33 Pre-wetting of aggregates before mixing

Fig. 7. Schematic representation of specimen coring.

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Table 6
Slump loss over time for concrete inks with different aggregate combinations.

specimen Slump
No.
0 5min loss ratio on 5min 10min loss ratio on 10min superplasticizer

NACB 150 140 6.67% 125 16.67% 0.20%

RCACB 120 93 22.50% 80 33.33% 0.20%
RFACB 110 82 25.45% 70 36.36% 0.20%
RACB 85 55 35.29% 40 52.94% 0.20%

Note: The amount of superplasticizer is calculated as a proportion of the cement weight.

Table 7
The slump over time after additive conditioning.

specimen Slump
No.
0 5min loss ratio on 5min 10min loss ratio on 10min superplasticizer

NACB 110 100 9.09% 80 27.27% 0.15%

RCACB 115 93 19.13% 80 30.43% 0.20%
RFACB 115 100 13.04% 85 26.09% 0.22%
RACB 113 95 15.93% 72 36.28% 0.30%

3.2. Printability design for 3DPC

Concrete printing inks require good rheology when pumping and mixing, and a certain degree of thixotropy more quickly after
extrusion. By regulating the concrete slump test, the analysis found that the slump control parameter range is 110 ± 10 mm, the
concrete ink presents a better printable state, as shown in Fig. 6. Differences in water absorption between RCA and RFA were
considered and 4 groups of aggregate combinations were derived for the printability, as shown in Table 5.

3.3. 3D printer parameter settings

The 3D concrete printer parameters mainly include the X, Y and Z axis three-way printing speed, ink extrusion speed and print path
settings. As the coarse aggregate is mixed into the ink, the weight of the upper printing layer increases, and the higher printing speed of
the small-sized components is not conducive to the shape control of the bottom printing strip. The print speed is set at 50 mm/s in all
three directions and the ink extrusion speed is controlled by the amount of ink extruded from the print head at 400 cm3/s. The print lift
height for each layer is set at 40 mm. As the specimens are 100 x 100 × 100 mm3 standard cubic compressive specimens and 100 x 100
× 400 mm3 flexural specimens, the code sets the print length X-axis to 600 mm long. The cores were cut and taken after the curing age,
as shown in Fig. 7.

3.4. Mechanical properties of 3DPC

The anisotropic mechanical properties of 3DPC include compressive and flexural strength tests. The test apparatus is a 100t uni­
versal electronic servo press. The compressive strength and the flexural strength include 7d and 28d specimens in the X, Y and Z axes.
The loading speed was set to 0.5 mm/s and 0.05 mm/s. The strength was converted according to “Standard for test method of mechanical
properties on ordinary concrete” (GB/T 50081–2016). The specimen coring method is shown in Fig. 7.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Influence of aggregate combinations on the printable properties of concrete
The slump loss of fresh concrete ink at 0 min, 5 min and 10 min was tested through trials, which is important for printability and
constructability of the printed building. The concrete ink loss over time showed significant variability under the same water reducing
agent admixture setting as shown in Table 6. The NACB group had a good flow with a large fresh mix slump of 150 mm, with a slump
loss of 6.67% and 16.67% at 5 min and 10 min respectively compared to the initial slump, indicating that it still had good flow after a
period of time. However, the same NACB group of concrete inks has a greater initial print distortion, which indicates some weakening
of its buildability and print efficiency. This can have a detrimental effect on building dimensional accuracy control. The initial slump of
the fresh mix was significantly reduced in the RCACB group compared to the NACB group. This is mainly due to the higher water
absorption of the RCACB reducing the flowability of the printing ink, further enhancing the initial buildability of the ink in the RCACB
group, allowing the deformation of the printing filament to be effectively controlled. The initial slump of the RFACB group is close to
that of the RCACB group and has a better printability. However, the slump loss during warping is high, with a slump of 70 mm at 10
min, a loss of 36.36%, which is not conducive to the continued printing of concrete inks. This is mainly due to the higher water ab­
sorption and coarser particle shape of the RFA which has a significant impact on the concrete properties. Even if the effect of particle
shape on the printability of the concrete is avoided by the addition of frictional resistance water, the higher water absorption still
results in increased slump loss over time. The RACB group has a minimum initial slump, which only just meets the printability re­
quirements. With increasing time, the 5 min and 10 min slumps no longer meet the printability of the concrete. This is due to the
increased ratio of water uptake with the simultaneous incorporation of RCA and RFA, and the increased friction of the concrete ink due

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Fig. 8. Comparison of printability of different aggregate combinations.

to the ineffective encapsulation of the rough particle shape. By regulating the amount of water reduction ratio, the ink slump loss over
time tended to be the same for all groups as shown in Table 7. At the same time, the incorporation of frictional water effectively
reduced the print voids in the RFACB and RACB groups due to the RFA particle shape.
The printability of each group of specimens was found to be significantly influenced by the aggregate combination. In the NACB
group, the continuous print state is stable, with the bottom layer being deformed by the weight of the upper layer. As the number of
layers increases, the bottom layer decreases in height and increases in width. Although the deformation of the ground floor height and
width is about 12.5% and 3% respectively, the bond of interlamination between printed filaments is tight. The RCACB group is in good
printable condition and has an aesthetic quality equivalent to that of concrete printed on natural aggregates. The bottom layer is less
deformed by the weight of the upper print bar. As the print process grows, the bottom layer decreases in height, but the width of the
layer remains largely unchanged. The height of the filament on the bottom layer after printing 3 layers is reduced to 37 mm, with a
deformation of approximately 7.5%. There are virtually no voids due to poor bonding between the layers. The RFACB group was
printable in good condition, with the bottom layer not being deformed by the weight of the upper print bar. As the printing process
progressed, the loss of concrete workability was more pronounced, with a deformation of approximately 1.5% in the bottom layer
height. The print surface is rougher, mainly due to the RFA grain shape and higher water absorption. The interlayer bonding is similar

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Fig. 9. Comparison of temperature conditions.

Fig. 10. Comparison of humidity conditions.

to that of the RCACB group. The RACB group is in good printable condition. Aesthetics are poorer even though the printed filament on
the bottom is not deformed. As the printing process progresses, the loss of working properties of the concrete is more severe than in the
RFACB group. It is worth noting that the interlayer bonding is poor and the interfacial voids can exist, as shown in Fig. 8.

4.2. Influence of curing methods on the mechanical properties of concrete

Air curing affects the hydration process of concrete mainly through temperature and humidity fluctuations in the environment. As
shown in Fig. 9, the average temperature over the 28d curing period fluctuates mainly between 23.89 ◦ C and 30.56 ◦ C, which is higher
compared to the standard curing chamber temperature of 20 ± 1 ◦ C. In particular, the air temperature can reach a maximum of
36.67 ◦ C, which has a significant effect on the water retention of the concrete. The volatilization of water weakens the hydration
process of the concrete and can lead to micro-cracks while increasing the drying and shrinking of the concrete. In addition, the dew
point temperature (the air temperature at which the gas molecule content is saturated, below which steam precipitates from the air and
condenses into water droplets) within the curing phase is overwhelmingly less than the minimum air temperature, which results in
concrete not being cured by water droplets precipitating from the air. Therefore, the temperature conditions under air curing can
significantly reduce the development of concrete properties. The average humidity in the air during the 28d of maintenance fluctuated
mainly between 55 and 97%, which is much lower compared to the standard maintenance chamber temperature of 95 ± 1% as shown
in Fig. 10. A minimum of only 25% humidity in the air at midday per day can lead to a diffusion of moisture from the concrete to the
concrete surface and a weakening of hydration within the concrete. In particular, the ratio of moisture transfer between the printed

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Fig. 11. Comparison of compressive strength under different maintenance conditions.

Fig. 12. Comparison of flexural strength under different maintenance conditions.

layers will be more rapid due to the large specific surface area of the form, exacerbating the further deterioration of the properties
between the layers. Even if rainfall during individual periods causes the maximum humidity within the air to exceed the standard
curing humidity, its duration only accounts for approximately 27% of the total curing time and therefore has a limited positive impact
on concrete curing.
By comparing the compressive and flexural strengths of the different aggregate combinations under both 7d and 28d conditioning
conditions, it was found that the compressive strengths of all groups of specimens under standard conditioning were higher than those
under air conditioning. The compressive strength of the NACB group was 30.8 MPa at 7d, approximately 1.27 times that of the air
condition compressive strength (24.3 MPa). And the compressive strength developed significantly at 28d, reaching 46.9 MPa,
approximately 1.25 times that of the air condition compressive strength (37.6 MPa). The relationship between the 7d and 28d
compressive strengths of the RCACB, RFACB and RACB groups was RCACB > RFACB > RACB group. The compressive strength under
standard conditioning for the RACB group was 17.4 MPa at 7d, which was 81.46% of that of the RFAS group, 73.73% of that of the
RCACB group and 56.49% of that of the NACB group, respectively. It is worth noting that if the strength difference ratio of the RFACB
and RCACB groups to the NACB group is summed to 44.81%, the strength difference ratio of the RACB group to the NACB group is
approximately 43.51%. It can be found that the AC has a " The whole is greater than the sum of the parts” effect on the concrete per­
formance, as shown in Fig. 11.
The highest strengths were obtained for the NACB group under air curing conditions, and the relationship between the 7d and 28d
strength development of the RCACB, RFACB and RACB groups was RFACB > RCACB > RACB group, which was different from the
relationship between the strengths of the groups under standard curing conditions (Fig. 12). On the one hand, there is a certain
dispersion in the development of properties in air conditioning, which may affect the measured data. On the other hand, it may be that
the transfer of water from the concrete to the outside under air curing conditions affects the hydration process. The higher water
absorption of the RFA makes its internal curing effect more pronounced than that of the RCA, and its early enhancement of hydration
exceeds the performance gap of the aggregate itself, resulting in the strength of the RFACB group exceeding that of the RCACB group.

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J. Xiao et al. Journal of Building Engineering 51 (2022) 104282

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of the distribution of the aggregate combination after coring of 3D printed specimens.

The significantly lower trend in strength growth at 28d for the RACB and RFACB groups compared to the RCACB group also indicates
that the RFA reduces the performance of the concrete more than the RCA, which is in line with the findings of many studies. It is
important to note that the RACB has a lower reduction in performance than the RCACB and RFACB with full replacement of a single
component combined. This suggests that the synergistic effect of the full recycled coarse and fine aggregate combinations on the
development of concrete properties under air-cured conditions is reduced.

4.3. Influence of casting process on anisotropic mechanical properties of concrete

The print interlayer as a weak area of 3DPC performance, which affects the anisotropic mechanical properties of 3D printed
specimens. Cut samples of the 7d and 28d cured compressive and flexural specimens revealed no obvious interlayer traces on visual
inspection of the specimens in each group, with good bonding between the printed conditions and an obvious distribution of the AC. In
the NACB group, the distribution of aggregates was uniform; in the RCACB group, the particle size and mineral origin of the recycled
coarse aggregates were more complex; in the RFACB group, the particle size of the recycled fine aggregates was not uniform; in the
RACB group, the distribution was more uneven than in the RCACB and RFACB groups, as shown in Fig. 13.
The comparison of the X, Y and Z axis compressive strengths under different ACs with the same batch of cast-in-place specimens
revealed that the main situation was CSC > X > Z > Y axis (see Fig. 14). The most significant effect on the X axis was seen with the
influence of the AC, with the greatest difference between the cast-in-place and anisotropic properties in the NACB group. The RA group
had X > Y > Z axis, unlike the other ACs, which may be due to the discrete nature of the material after 7d. At 28 days, the anisotropic
performance relationship changed to the same as the other groups. When no RFA is added (the NACB and RCACB), their early

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J. Xiao et al. Journal of Building Engineering 51 (2022) 104282

Fig. 14. Compressive strength of different aggregate combinations.

anisotropic properties develop in a relatively similar pattern. However, after the addition of RFA (the RFACB and RACB), the difference
of the early anisotropic properties between the Y and Z axis was significantly reduced. This indicates that the effect of RFA on the Y and
Z axis is more obvious. The early anisotropic properties of the RFACB and RACB were significantly reduced after the addition of RCA,
indicating that the RCA had a significant effect on the X axis. The RFACB group had a compressive strength of 25.1 MPa in the X axis,
and 85.06% and 90.44% in the Y axis and Z axis at 28d, respectively. The RACB group had a compressive strength of 18.9 MPa in the X
axis, and 86.24% and 95.77% in the Y axis and Z axis at 28d, respectively.
Unlike the performance of each anisotropic compressive specimen, the flexural specimens were Y axis strengths greater than the Z
axis. The regularity of the AC is similar for all groups except for the CSC group in the NAS group, where the 28d Y axis flexural strength
is 5.13 MPa, and for the RCAS, RFAS and RAS groups, where the Y axis strength is 76.61%, 72.32% and 60.04%, respectively. It should
be noted that the RACB group had the smallest difference in CSC group and anisotropic properties, suggesting that poorer AC prop­
erties significantly reduce the difference in the effect of the printing process on performance.

5. Conclusion

1. Different ACs have a significant impact on printable performance, which is mainly due to the impact of difference in the material
properties of the components themselves within the recycled aggregate combination. However, after admixture control and mixing
process optimization, all can achieve the preparation of concrete and continuous printing. Due to its higher water absorption and
rough particle shape, the RAs have a beneficial effect on the buildability, which may facilitate its further application and research as
a concrete ink component.
2. As 3D printed buildings in practical engineering applications are mostly exposure to the printing environment, their performance
development is influenced by environmental temperature and humidity factors. The temperature conditions have a more signif­
icant influence on the development of the properties of 3DPC. On the one hand, moisture within the concrete surface can be
influenced by high temperature to evaporate which lead concrete cracking. On the other hand, the transport of surface water causes
its position to move outwards within the concrete, affecting the hydration process. The RFA shows better properties of air curing
condition than the RCA due to their higher water absorption and specific surface area, which differs from the pattern under
standard curing conditions.

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Fig. 15. Flexural strength of different aggregate combinations.

3. Compared to the cast-in-place method, the performance of the concrete prepared by 3D printing was worse. The compressive
strength of all groups of specimens under different ACs showed a pattern of X > Z > Y axis. The X axis of the AC is significantly
affected by the incorporation of RCA; The RFA mainly affects the development of the Y axis and Z axis properties. In addition, the
difference in performance of the AC significantly reduces the tendency of the casting process to affect the concrete performance.

Author statement
Manuscript title: JBE-D-21-06316I have made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition,
analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND I have drafted the work or revised it critically for important intellectual content;
AND I have approved the final version to be published; AND I agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that
questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. All persons who have
made substantial contributions to the work reported in the manuscript, including those who provided editing and writing assistance
but who are not authors, are named in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript and have given their written permission to be
named. If the manuscript does not include Acknowledgments, it is because the authors have not received substantial contributions
from nonauthors. The following is a description of the corresponding contributions of all authors of this article (JBE-D-21-06316).
Author: Jianzhuang Xiao, is responsible for Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation and Funding
acquisition. Author: Zhenyuan Lv, is responsible for Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation and Writing. Author: Zhenhua Duan,
is responsible for Funding acquisition, Methodology and Resources. Author: Shaodan Hou, is responsible for Methodology, Validation
and Visualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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J. Xiao et al. Journal of Building Engineering 51 (2022) 104282

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52078358, 52178244).

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