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PWANI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

AHS B401
RESEARCH PROJECT I

PREPARED BY: DR. WINNIFRED MWIKALI

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COURSE OUTLINE
AHS B401: RESEARCH PROJECT I
Contact Hours 45 Pre-requisite-None
Credit Hours: 3

Course Purpose
The course prepares student with the skills and knowledge in writing
a historical research paper under the direction of a member of
Department History. The student is required to demonstrate
competence in choosing research topic, developing research
prospectus and research methodology
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, the student should be able to:
i) Identify a research topic (criteria for identification)
ii) Discuss qualitative methods for the historian.
iii) Explain the use of computer in historical research.
iv) Evaluation and interpretation of historical evidence: verification
of sources; external and internal criticism, etc. The art of translation.
v) Discuss Components of a research project: title page; abstract;
table of contents; list of illustrations; the preface; introduction; the
main body of the work; the conclusion; appendices; glossary of terms;
bibliography and list of informants.
vi) Scholarly editing. The communication skills of the historian.

Course Content
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Identification of a Research Topic; Qualitative Methods for the

Historian; The Use of Computer in Historical Research; Evaluation
and Interpretation of Historical Evidence (verification of sources;
external and internal criticism etc and the art of translation.);
Components of a Research Project (title page; abstract; table of
contents; list of illustrations; the preface; introduction; the main
body of the work; the conclusion; appendices; glossary of terms;
bibliography); Writing up a Research Project (Drafting, Revising,
Preparing the Final Copy).
Mode of Delivery:
Lectures, group discussion, case analysis, power point presentation
Instructional Materials and Equipment
Chalkboard, Marker pen, laptop, overhead projector
Course Assessment
Type Weighting
Examination (B.A. Dissertation) 70%
Continuous Assessment Tests 30%
Total 100%

Core References
Maina, M. (2012). Qualitative and quantitative Research Methods
Simplified, Nairobi: Frajopa Printers.
McDowell, W.H. (2013). Historical Research: A Guide for Writers of
Dissertations, Theses, Articles, New York: Routledge
Further Reading Materials
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Adams, H. B. (2008). Methods of Historical Study, Bonn: Bibliolife

Black, J. & Macraile, D. (1997). Studying History, Hampshire:
Macmillan
Erim, E.O. & Uya, O.E. (1984). Perspectives and methods of Studying
African History, Enugu: Nigeria Fourth Dimension Publishers Ltd.

RESEARCH PROJECT

The word “research” originated from the old French word

“recerchier” meaning to search and search again. It literally implies
repeating a search for something and implicitly assumes that the
earlier search was not exhaustive and complete in the sense that
there is still scope for improvement. Research in common parlance
refers to a search for knowledge. It may be defined as a scientific
and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic/area. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the
meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry
especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge”.
Redman and Mory define research as “a systematized effort to gain
new knowledge”. Some people consider research as a movement, a
movement from known to unknown. It is actually a voyage of
discovery. Research is a scientific approach of answering a research
question, solving a problem or generating new knowledge through a
systematic and orderly collection, organization, and analysis of
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information with an ultimate goal of making the research useful in

decision-making.

Research Project means a discrete scientific endeavor to answer a

research question or a set of research questions. A Research Project
must include a description of a defined protocol, clearly articulated
goal(s), defined methods and outputs, and a defined start and end
date

Characteristics of Research
Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve
systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question,
the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a
phenomenon. This process has eight distinct characteristics.
Research…
1. Originates with a question or problem.
2. Requires a clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan of procedure.
4. Usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-
problems.
5. Is guided by the specific research problem, question, or
hypothesis.
6. Requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to
resolve the problem that initiated the research.
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1.4 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever the types of research works have been done, they all meet
on the common ground of scientific method. Scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria -
 Purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common
concepts be used.
 Research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement.
 Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned
to yield results that are as objective as possible.
 Researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design would affects upon the findings.
 Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research.

1.6 Significance of Research

Research is important for researchers in studying social relationship

and in seeking answers to various social problems.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.
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Research has its special significance in solving various operational

and planning of business and industry.
Research is needed to develop strategies and models in rural
development.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether
related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly
increased in modern items.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes
the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
To students who are to write a master’s or PhD thesis, research may
mean a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
To professionals, research may mean a source of livelihood.
To literary men and women, research may mean the development of
new style and creative work.
To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the foundation of knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and an important source for providing guidelines for
solving different business, government and social problems.

CHAPTER TWO: HISTORICAL RESEARCH

What is Historical Research?

You know that history is not simply the text you read and the names
and dates you memorize. Some of that is important, but history is far
more than that. History is similar to a detectiveʼs investigation. Itʼs
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the process of solving a puzzle by looking for clues, piecing together

the evidence, and drawing conclusions. A historian is concerned with
three big questions: “What happened?, Why did it happen?, and What
does it mean?” The short form goes like this: “What, Why and So
What?” The most important question is the “So what?” In fact, the
quest for meaning is what drives historians to ask about things that
happened in the past. You also know by now that being a historian
does not necessarily involve getting a postgraduate degree and
publishing scholarly articles and books. Anybody can engage in the
process of historical inquiry, for the simple reason that anybody can
derive meaning from the past. We rely upon professional historians
to deal with the more difficult questions of what happened, why it
happened and what it all means, and to show us new ways of looking
at the past that are meaningful to new generations. But anyone, with
a little training and a collection of sources, can “do” history any time.
History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research of past
events as relating to the human species; as well as the study of all
events in time, in relation to humanity. History can be seen as the
sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events
occurring in action following in order leading from the past to the
present and into the future. The historical method comprises the
techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources
and other evidence to research and then to write history.
Historical research is the process of systematically examining past
events to give an account of what has happened in the past.
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It is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains,

etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time. The purpose of
historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends,
causes or effects of past occurrences. This may help in explaining
present events and anticipating future events.
It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description
of past
events.
It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events which involves an
interpretation of the events in an attempt to recapture the nuances,
personalities, and ideas that influenced these events.
One of the goals of historical research is to communicate an
understanding of
past events.
Significance of Historical Research
The following gives five important reasons for conducting historical
research.
1. To uncover the unknown (i.e., some historical events are not
recorded).
2. To answer questions (i.e., there are many questions about our past
that we not only want to know but can profit from knowing).
3. To identify the relationship that the past has to the present (i.e.,
knowing about the past can frequently give a better perspective of
current events).
4. To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals,
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agencies, or
institutions.
5. To assist in understanding the culture in which we live (e.g.,
education is a part of our history and our culture). Historical research
is a type of analytical research. Its common methodological
characteristics include

 identifying a research topic that addresses past events,

 review of primary and secondary data,
 systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to
past occurrences with the help of techniques of criticism for historical
searches and evaluation of the information and
 synthesis and explanation of findings in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends of these events that
may help to explain present events and anticipate future events.

Historical studies attempt to provide information and understanding

of past historical, legal and policy events. The historical method
consists of the techniques and guidelines by which historians use
historical sources and other pieces of evidence to research and then
to write history.

1.9 PHASES OF RESEARCH

The work on the research can be divided up into three phases, the
planning phase, the project phase and the documentation phase.
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I. Planning/proposal Phase: One of the keys to developing a

successful research is the careful planning of it from the outset. The
mechanism for project planning is a proposal. The function of a
proposal is to answer four questions: (a) what will be done? (b) why
is it an important thing to do? (c) what are the objectives and scope
of the work? and (d) how will it be done?

II. Field work/ Data collection: It refers to observing, measuring,

and recording information.
III. Data analysis: It refers to arranging and organizing the
collected data so that we may be able to find out what their
significance is and generalize about them.
IV. Documentation Phase/ Report or thesis writing: The
documentation phase or the preparation of the research should occur
continually during the project. The proposal and progress reports
written during the project phase can form the basis for much of the
final document. It is an inseparable part and a final outcome of a
research study. Its purpose is to convey information contained in it
to the readers or audience.

CHAPTER THREE: A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

What is a research proposal?
A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your
proposed research. It sets out the central issues or questions that
you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
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which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge

and any recent debates on the topic. It also demonstrates the
originality of your proposed research.
A research proposal is a simply a structured, formal document that
explains what you plan to research (i.e. your research topic), why it’s
worth researching (i.e. your justification), and how you plan to
investigate it (i.e. your practical approach).
The purpose of the research proposal (it’s job, so to speak) is
to convince your research supervisor, committee or university that
your research is suitable (for the requirements of the degree
program) and manageable (given the time and resource constraints
you will face).
The most important word here is “convince” – in other words, your
research proposal needs to sell your research idea (to whoever is
going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and
manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit. This will cost you
valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat
into its time allowance (which is bad news).

What goes into a research proposal?

As we mentioned earlier, a good dissertation or thesis proposal needs
to cover the “what”, the “why” and the “how” of the research. Let’s
look at each of these in a little more detail:
The WHAT
Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic. This
needs to be specific and unambiguous. Your research topic should
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make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context.
Example of topics:
1. The historical trajectory of livestock production
and its transformation among the Akamba of
Machakos, Kenya. 1895-1963
2. The Role of Women Leaders in the Socio-Economic
Development of Kenya (1963-2022)
3. The Contribution of Cashewnuts Factory to the
Economic Development of the Agiriama of Kilifi County,
Kenya. (Period)
4. The Transformation of Indigenous Political
Structure of the Agikuyu of Kiambu County, Kenya.
(1895-1963)

5. The change in the marriage institution among the

Luo of Siaya County, Kenya (1895-1963)

6. Challenges facing the Independent Electoral and

Boundaries Commission, Kenya. (2010-2022)

7. Challenges facing County Governments in Kenya

(2013-2022)

As you can see, these topics are extremely clear. From this one line
we can see exactly:
What’s being investigated, Who are involved, Where the research is
taking place, When the research will be carried out.
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So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed

explanation of your research topic. It should go without saying, but
don’t start writing your proposal until you have a crystal-clear topic
in mind, or you’ll end up waffling away a few thousand words.
The WHY
As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a
research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original. In other
words, what makes it unique? What gap in the current literature
does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s
probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.
But, originality alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box,
you also need to justify why your proposed topic is important. In
other words, what value will it add to the world if you manage to find
answers to your research questions?
So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s
not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and
value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal.
The HOW
It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and
important, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it
without discussing the practicalities – in other words:
How will you undertake your research?
Is your research design appropriate for your topic?
Is your plan manageable given your constraints (time, money,
expertise)?
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While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed out
research strategy at the proposal stage, you will need to provide a
high-level view of your research methodology and some key design
decisions. Here are some important questions you’ll need to address
in your proposal:
Will you take a qualitative or quantitative approach?
Will your design be cross-sectional or longitudinal?
How will you collect your data (interviews, surveys, etc)?
How will you analyse your data (e.g. statistical analysis, qualitative
data analysis, etc)?
So, make sure you give some thought to the practicalities of your
research and have at least a basic understanding of research
methodologies before you start writing up your proposal.

Components of a Research Proposal

Your research proposal should normally include the following
information:
Title page
Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title
page that includes: Your name, Your supervisor’s name, The
institution and department
The proposed title of your project. Your title should give a clear
indication of your proposed research approach or key question
This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be
able to revise your title during the course of your research if you are
accepted for admission.
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Abstract
You have to include an abstract. An abstract is a summary of what
is included in the proposal. Check the example below.
This study sets out to examine the historical trajectory of livestock economy and
its transformation among the Akamba of Machakos between 1895 and 1963. The
main thrust of the study is the need to examine and detail the role of the colonial
capitalist agency in the marginalization and neglect of livestock industry among
the Akamba of Machakos. The study will be guided by the following objectives;
to examine the nature and significance of livestock economy among the Akamba
of Machakos during the pre-colonial era; to assess the impact of colonial polices
on livestock economy in Machakos and finally, to establish the response of the
Akamba of Machakos to various colonial policies on livestock production. To
achieve this, the study will employ the theories of the articulation of modes of
production and the agency theory. The study will utilize the historical research
design in order to link phases of the area of the study with the study title. Data
collection will be done through primary and secondary sources. Primary sources
will involve the use of vast archival materials which will provide the official state
position on livestock production; oral interviews with selected informants will help
to reveal the Akamba perception on the livestock economy in the area during the
period under study. The target population will consist of people who were involved
in livestock management or trade during the colonial period. Purposive and
snowball sampling techniques will be used to select a sample of 24 informants who
are well versed with Akamba livestock economy. The research instrument that will
be employed to collect oral data is unstructured interview schedule. In addition,
secondary sources will be utilized. They include books, journal articles,
dissertations and unpublished documents. They will help in identifying the gap,
hence laying the basis for the significance of the proposed study. Data will be
analyzed using qualitative method. It will be compiled into themes and reported in
descriptive texts and direct quotations.

Table of contents
The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters,
sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be
able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your
paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section.
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Background of the Study

In this section you should include: the background and issues of your
proposed research, identify your discipline, a short literature review,
a summary of key debates and developments in the field. Consider
the example below;
Generally, during the pre-colonial era, most Africans depended on the produce
from their farms as well as livestock keeping to sustain their livelihood. However,
livestock keeping was valued more for its social as well as economic values. Van
Zwanenberg and King1 have attested to the fact that even among the settled
agricultural peoples and in the mixed agricultural and pastoral societies, the
ownership and control of cattle and other livestock had a high economic and social
value in the 19th century. They note that the basis of political power of the Bahima
or the Tutsi ruling classes in Western Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda was based
on their ownership of livestock rather than on any ethnic differences within the
societies.2
In Kenya, at the beginning of colonial era, pastoral societies were either agro
pastoral or nomadic pastoral. This means that they were either pure or mixed
pastoralists. The pre-colonial pastoral life was best described in socio-economic
terms. Socially livestock was vital as the ladder of social status which most men
essayed to climb at some time in their lives3. Thus, it is clear that the pre-colonial
Kenyan societies, whether agro-pastoral or purely pastoral, the acquisition of
livestock was crucial.4
The Akamba of Machakos, who are the focus of this study, were agro pastoralist.
Prior to the colonial era, they grew sorghum, millet, maize, cow peas, beans, sweet
potatoes, bananas, squash and sugarcane among other crops. They also reared
animals like cattle, goats and sheep.5 Matheka6 observes that although crops were
viewed to be important source of staple food, livestock was also highly valued as a
source of food during dry seasons when crops would fail. The Akamba would also
exchange their livestock with the neighbouring communities like the Agikuyu to
acquire other commodities like grains especially during famine. As such, Cattle
1 Van Zwanenberg. R.M.A., and King, A. An Economic History of Kenya and Uganda, 1800-1970 (London,
1975), 80.
2 Ibid.
3 Ndege, G. “History of Pastoralism in Colonial Kenya”, in Ochieng,’ W.R. and Maxon, R.M. (Eds). An

Economic History of Kenya. (Nairobi, 1992), 94.

4 Kitching, G. Class and Economic Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite Bourgeoisie, 1905-1970.

(New Haven, 1980), 203.

5 Rocheleau, D., et al “Environment, Development, Crisis, and Crusade: Ukambani, Kenya, 1890-1990”.

World Development, Vol. 23, No. 6. (1995), 1040.

6 Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine: Ecology and History in Machakos District during the

Colonial Era”. M.A. Thesis. Kenyatta University. (1992), 79.

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served as an insurance against crop failure because seasons of low rainfall did not
always result in scarcity of pasture. Kimambo7 has also observed that the spatial
and ecological design of traditional Akamba life provided a sustaining foundation
for their economy. Pastoral activities predominated originally, but by the
nineteenth century a mixed economy emerged. In spite of this, livestock,
particularly cattle, continued to play important subsistence and social roles.
Mutiso8 argues that the traditional strength of Akamba attachment to livestock is
indicated by the importance of syengo (cattle posts) as pioneer outposts in
territorial expansion. Through an elaborate social system, stock was collected at
the local level and dispersed among relatives and eco- zones.
However, today livestock economy is no longer the mainstay of the economy of
Machakos. Many people have ventured in other activities like wage employment,
pure crop farming, trade, charcoal burning, bee keeping, hand craft among
others. This can be attributed to the changes that were witnessed during the
colonial period. In Africa generally and Kenya in particular, the advent of
Europeans put an end to the importance placed to livestock acquisition. Land was
taken away by the Europeans to create room for the ‘White Highlands’. The
Akamba were then pushed to the African reserves which were created to tame their
movement. New economic systems, ideas and techniques which did not favour
pastoralism were spread across the country and economic changes occurred.
As much as economic transition did occur on the African continent long before
colonial dominance. This was mainly due to environmental change leading to
population movements. Communities modes of production would evolve as they
adapt themselves and their systems to the current physical and social climate such
as droughts, population growth, and livestock epidemics, which all resulted in a
shift in modes of production. These changes automatically led to economic
transformation. But with the coming of the Europeans, the economic adaptation
changed as a result of the policies that were introduced by the colonial
government. Since then, the economic adaptation of Africans has been the product
of a complex relationship between Europeans and Africans. 9
Ndege10 has supported this view by observing that during the first two decades of
colonial rule, a new chapter was inaugurated in the history of pastoralism. The
colonial state imposed considerable limitations on the freedom of pastoralists and
hence accessibility of their livestock to grazing pastures. The enactment of various

7 Kimambo, I.N. "The Economic History of the Kamba, 1850-1950" in B.A. Ogot (Ed). Hadith 2. (Nairobi,
1968), 80.
8 Mutiso, G.C.M. "Kitui: Ecosystems, Integration and Change", in B.A. Ogot (Ed). Ecology and History in

East Africa. (Nairobi, 1979), 2-3.

9 Cokumu, P. “The Colonial Transformation of Agriculture in Siaya, 1894-1945”. M.A. Thesis. Kenyatta

University. (2000), 1.
10 Ndege, G. “History of Pastoralism in Colonial Kenya”, 97.
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land and livestock ordinances began to erode the traditional economic

foundations of the pastoral sector11. In Machakos, the land ordinances drastically
altered the social, economic and ecological organization of the Akamba, a factor
which undermined the Akamba indigenous modes of production.12As a result, by
1952, livestock production had already been subordinated to crop production.13
This subordination was manifested in the substitution of coins and notes for
livestock as a means of trade, as well as the substitution of money as a measure of
wealth 14.Thus in the modern day Machakos, livestock plays a very minor role as
compared to the way it was in the pre-colonial period.
In view of the above, a considerable number of scholars have investigated the
colonial history in the lens of colonial production and export of cash crops such
as cotton, coffee, tea and groundnuts. Adedeji15, Cokumu16, Chacha17, Smith18
Thus, livestock production has suffered neglect. This neglect has tended to give
the misleading impression that British colonialism exploited only the crop
producers, and avoided the livestock keepers who dominated the livestock and
dairy industries. Besides, the few studies that have attempted to look at the
livestock production have mainly focused on the role of livestock in the economies
of Africa within the context of nomadic pastoralism. Little attention has been paid
to the role of livestock in mixed agricultural communities that are predominant in
Kenya. It is against this background that this study seeks to analyse the historical
context of the transformation of the livestock industry among the Akamba of
Machakos during the colonial era.

Statement of the Problem

The proposal should include a concise statement of your intended
research. This SOP shows what motivated the researcher to
undertake the research. It is the difference between what is on the
ground and what ought to be. This may be a couple of paragraphs

11 Ibid, 98.
12 Zeleza, T. Akamba. (New York, 1995), 43-44.
13 Ndege, G. “History of Pastoralism in Colonial Kenya”
14 Kitching, G. Class and Economic Change in Kenya, 224.
15 Barker. L The Politics of Agriculture in Tropical Africa (Beverly, 1965).
16 Cokumu, P. “The Colonial Transformation of Agriculture in Siaya”.
17 Chacha, B. “Agricultural History of the Abakuria of Kenya from the End of the Nineteenth Century to

the mid 1970’s.” MA Thesis Egerton University. (1999),

18Smith, L. An Overview of Agricultural Development Policy in J. Heyer et al. Agricultural Development in

Kenya: An Economic Assessment. (Nairobi, 1976).

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setting out the problem that you want to examine or the central
question that you wish to address. See the following example.
In the pre-colonial period, livestock was the hallmark of wealth among African
communities as exemplified by the Akamba of Machakos. It was both a measure
and store of value. However, with the advent of colonialism, which bred capitalism
in Kenya in general and Machakos in particular, the Akamba livestock economy
was placed on negative trajectory such that by the time Kenya attained its
independence, the ownership of livestock no longer generated the same general
feeling of respect and prestige among the Akamba of Machakos as it was the case
during the pre-colonial period.
Generally, we can say that the situation in which livestock keeping was the
predominant force in Machakos during the pre-colonial period was turned upside
down so that today livestock keeping people are impoverished, dominated and
underprivileged. It is therefore necessary to examine and detail the colonial
capitalist agency in the apparent marginalization and neglect of livestock industry
among the Akamba of Machakos. The need for such examination was
compounded by the paucity of the literature focusing on this subject. This may
have arisen as a result of the misconception formed to the effect that livestock
keeping communities were largely untouched by colonialism. As such, the
fundamental transformation brought about by colonial capitalism on the pre-
colonial livestock economy among the Akamba of Machakos has eluded scholarly
attention. That being the case, there is an apparent lack of sufficient knowledge
over the impact of colonial rule on livestock production in the region. Thus, by
focusing on the colonial transformation of livestock economy among the Akamba
of Machakos between 1895 and 1963, this study seeks to unravel the forces central
to the peripheralization of livestock production as a key component of the economy
of the people of Machakos.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of your study state what you expect to achieve in
general terms. They break down the general objective into
smaller, logically connected parts that systematically address
the various aspects of the problem. Your specific objectives
should specify exactly what you will do in each phase of your
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study, how, where, when and for what purpose. The objectives
should be SMART.
S----Specific
M---Measurable
A----Achievable
R----Realistic/Relevant
T----Time bound

See the following example;

The study will be guided by the following objectives

i. To examine the nature and significance of livestock economy
among the Akamba of Machakos during the pre-colonial era.
ii. To assess the impact of colonial policies on livestock economy
in Machakos.
iii. To establish the response of the Akamba of Machakos to the
various colonial policies on livestock production.

Research Questions
The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will
guide your research. Before writing your proposal, you should take
time to reflect on the key questions that you are seeking to answer.
The questions must come from the objectives directly. See for
example;

The study will seek to answer the following questions

i. What was the nature and significance of livestock economy
among the Akamba of Machakos on the eve of colonial rule?
ii. What was the impact of colonial polices on livestock economy
in Machakos?
iii. How did the Akamba of Machakos respond to various colonial
policies on livestock production?
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Significance of the Study

To finish your proposal on a strong note, you can explore the

potential implications of the research for theory or practice, and
emphasize again what you aim to contribute to existing knowledge
on the topic. For example, your results might have implications for:
Improving processes in a specific location or field, informing policy
objectives, strengthening a theory or model, challenging popular or
scientific assumptions, creating a basis for further research. For
instance;

Kenya has been faced by serious food shortages. The country’s production of food
does not meet the demands of the ever increasing population. The situation is even
becoming worse as millions of Kenyans are facing starvation. To sustain the ever
growing population, the country must increase the production of sufficient and
quality food. This will go a long way in eradicating poverty in the country. To
achieve the food security which is one of the pillars of the big four agenda, there
is need for a historical understanding on the significant role of the livestock sector
in food security. Thus, this study examines the historical trajectory of livestock
economy and its transformation among the Akamba of Machakos from 1895 to
1963 with an aim of creating an understanding of Africa’s poor pastoral
performance. It examines livestock production in relation to colonial policies. The
study maintains that although there are other factors like the vagaries of weather,
failure for the country to have a robust and reliable livestock industry is as a result
of the failure by the government to formulate policies aimed at improving the
livestock sector. The interaction between the livestock production and government
policies has therefore been affecting this sector since the colonial period. It is thus
important to analyse and properly document this interplay especially in the rural
areas. The present study, is therefore, important as it examines the role played by
the colonial state in the peripheralization of livestock industry from a historical
perspective. It is hoped that this historical study will serve as a basis for
understanding the present state of livestock production in Machakos.
Furthermore, a knowledge of the past successes and failures as outlined in this
 23

study will help the government in formulating policies for the improvement of the
livestock sector in Machakos.

Scope of the Study

The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area
will be explored in the work and specifies the parameters within the
study will be operating. Basically, this means that you will have to
define what the study is going to cover and what it is focusing on.
The study will restrict itself to the colonial transformation of livestock economy in
Machakos district. Machakos district has been selected for the study because it
was the first administrative center of the Imperial British East Africa Company
(IBEAC). In the late 1880s, Machakos was the capital of the protectorate and
remained so up to 1899 when the capital was moved to Nairobi because Machakos
was bypassed by the railway which was still under construction.19 The declaration
of Machakos as the capital of the protectorate set the stage for alienation of large
tracts of land which set in motion processes that undermined the livestock industry
among the Akamba. For instance, the creation of the Machakos reserve followed
by the declaration of all the unoccupied lands as Crown Land cut off the Akamba
of 3/5 of their grazing area. This led to overpopulation, overcrowding and
overgrazing. Hence, for most of the colonial period, Machakos District was the
stage of a complex agrarian problem. The problem came to be known as 'The
Machakos Problem' in colonial circles.20 The problem went unabated and as such,
land crises increased in frequency and intensity over the years. The colonial
administration blamed this on the Akamba overstocking and pressured the
Akamba to cull off their livestock. This culminated into the infamous destocking
policy of the 1930s. In a nutshell, the colonial policies sowed the seeds of land
crises in Machakos which impacted negatively on livestock production in the study
area.

The year 1895 is taken to be the entry point for this study since it is the year that
Kenya came under British rule, after the colonial government taking over the
administration of the protectorate from the IBEAC in 1895.The declaration on
July 1st 1895 of a small protectorate over the small area between Mombasa and
the rift valley would turn out to be a very crucial turning point in Kenyan history
and that of Machakos in particular. This declaration saw the introduction of
several policies that brought significant changes on the African communities. It

19
http://masakucountycouncil.com/about-thika/background information accessed on 31. July 2020.

20
Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine”, 1.
 24

is therefore an important event in Kenya’s history. The study ends in 1963 because
it is the year Kenya attained independence. This duration is considered in order to
capture all the colonial reforms that had a significant impact on livestock economy
in Machakos all the way from start of colonial rule to the eve of independence.
The time scope is considered to be ample in examining the interplay between
colonial capitalism and livestock economy in the study area.

Literature Review

10.1: Introduction
Before collecting data from primary sources, historians must first of
all establish what has already been written on their topic. They must
familiarize themselves with theories and arguments as well as facts
that exist in secondary sources. This will help them to know what is
known and also what is not known about their subject area. In
academic circles this is referred to as literature review. A literature
review is therefore a survey of scholarly articles, books and other
sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory,
and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical
evaluation of these works. It is designed to provide an overview of the
existing sources on a topic and at the same time critiquing them in
order to justify one’s research by exposing gaps in current research.
As such, a literature review is a must-do in any historical research.
The aim of this chapter is therefore to explain the rationale for
conducting and writing a literature review and the steps involved in
undertaking a detailed and comprehensive literature review.

1.2. Meaning of Literature Review

According to Kombo and Tromp (2014), a literature review is, “an

account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars
and researchers”. It is a survey of scholarly works which are relevant
to the topic under research with an aim of providing a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works. (Ramdhani, et. al,
2014). These scholarly works may include but not limited to journal
articles, abstracts, reviews, monographs, dissertations, other
research reports and electronic media. Literature review is thus
meant to give an overview of the sources that the researcher has
 25

explored in his topic of research and to demonstrate to his readers

how his research fits into the larger field of study. It gives an overview
of what has been said, who the key 2 authors are, what are the
prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked,
and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful. As
such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other
findings by giving a description of the already existing literature
which is relevant to a particular subject or topic. Fink (2010) sums
this up by arguing that a review of literature is a systematic, explicit,
and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and
synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work
produced by researcher, scholar, and practitioners.

1.3. Rationale for Conducting a Literature Review

Most researchers always ask themselves, “why contact a literature

review?” “Is literature review really necessary?” It is important to note
that literature review is as important as any other component of
historical research. This section provides the justification for
conducting a literature review.

To determine what has already been done that relates to your

topic. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), literature review
tells you what has been done and what needs to be done. This
knowledge not only prevents you from unintentionally duplicating
another person’s research, but it also gives you the understanding
and insight that you need to place your topic within a logical frame.

To identify a gap within the body or research. When reviewing any

literature, the most important task of a researcher is to identify the
gap that exists. Thus, the review should show how the research
project will join the on-going conversation in a certain field and
indicate how the research will resolve unresolved questions in others'
work (Ridley, 2008). This convinces the readers that they should not
be completely be satisfied with the existing literature on the topic. It
also demonstrates that the proposed research will fill some important
or interesting gap or address some important limitation or deficiency
of the previous studies.
 26

To uncover similarities and differences or consistencies and

inconsistencies within existing research. Kothari (2004)
postulates that literature reviews are done to show the inconsistency
in different studies. Being familiar with previous research related to
your study will help you to unravel the “thesis and the antithesis” in
a particular topic. You may find a lack of consistency in reported
results across the studies you have chosen to review. This may make
you undertake a research to explore the basis of the inconsistency.
This also helps the researcher to categorize the sources into various
schools of thought. If the results contradict previous findings, an
explanation should be given to provide a rationale for the
discrepancy. If the results are consistent with other findings, the
report should include suggestions for the next step.
To help you generate and justify your research question. Another
important purpose of doing a review of related literature is to explain
the motivations behind your research. Your major goal here is
convince the reader that the research area is significant and worth
doing. You’re trying to contextualize your story to fit in the “bigger
story” (Boote & Beile, 2005).

To justify your research hypotheses / ideas. A review of literature

also helps to explain why a study took a certain direction or stand.
For instance; What theory and/or earlier studies suggested that a
particular hypotheses are likely to be true or likely to give some
meaningful results? (Boote & Beile, 2005)

To explain how the historical context for your research guided

what you did. This is very important in historical research because
it helps in understanding how and where the proposed research fits
into a “bigger picture”. Thus, understanding the past helps one to
understand the present and give a clear direction of where the
research needs to go. Explain and justify your choice of theoretical
framework. A theory is a very important element in any given study.
It guides a researcher on what to look for when collecting data. In
other words, it can be used to predict the outcome of the research. It
is also useful during the analysis and interpretation of the findings.
Kumar (2005) thus emphasizes that one must do a literature review
so as to identify some of the theories that can inform their study and
also have a justification for choosing them.
 27

To give a rationale for using a certain methodology. Mbabazi

(2011) is of the opinion that prior knowledge about different
approaches used for collecting data in other studies will help you to
avoid other researchers’ mistakes and profit from their experiences.
It may suggest approaches and procedures that you previously had
not considered. This will help you to be aware of the potential
limitations of your approach which in turn assist you to think of the
possible ways to control and/or overcome them just in case you face
them during your research.
To introduce relevant terminology and provide operational
definitions to clarify how certain terms will be used. In any
research, the operational definition of terms is always a very
important aspect. This is even more useful when using new or
contested ideas where is there is no universally agreed upon
definition for a term or concept. (Nakano & Muniz 2018). Therefore,
it is always crucial to give a functional definition of the terms as used
in your study. For instance: you can ask yourself; “For the purposes
of this research, what exactly does development or
underdevelopment mean?” A review of related literature may help you
come up with a good operational definition of terms.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Enormous literature that has focused on aspects of the livestock

economy of colonial Kenya will be reviewed. The literature review will

be organized according to themes which assisted in responding to the

fundamental research questions in order to carry out the study more

precisely. The relevant related literature will be therefore grouped

into three categories as per the research questions. They include; the

nature and significance of livestock in pre-colonial African societies,

the impact of colonial polices on livestock economy in Africa and the

 28

response of the Africans to colonial transformations on livestock

production.

1.8.1 The Nature and Significance of Livestock

Production in Pre-Colonial African Societies
Hopkins,21 writing on West African economies uses the example of cattle-
producing communities such as the Tuareg and Fulani, who valued livestock for
their economic qualities rather than their social values. He has shown the
presence of a symbiotic partnership between cattle producers and cultivators, as
well as how each party depended on the other's goods. Hopkins' work is important
because it offers a framework for interpreting the patterns of economic activity in
pre-colonial Africa. Hopkins' perspective on the Tuareg and Fulani of West
Africa, on the other hand, does not accurately represent the condition in pre-
colonial Machakos, as the aforementioned groups were pure pastoralists, while
the Akamba were agro-pastoral. As a result, this research attempts to determine
the Akamba actual role during the pre-colonial era.

Sie22 supports the above views by observing that among the Datoga of Tanzania,
cattle had the highest economic and social value. They were named, branded and
their pedigrees memorized. She points out that cattle were most important for their
milk production, which provided a staple food as well as purchasing grain during
the dry season when milk yields were poor. Similarly, Huntingford23 holds the
belief that pastoralism was a major source of income for the Nandi. He notes that
apart from keeping cattle for food, they also kept them for social prestige and
valued them so much that an individual who had a lot of cattle was regarded as
rich while one with few was poor and the one with none was not even recognized.
A similar view is also expressed by Toweett24 who observes that a human without
a cow or a goat was treated as a pitiful poverty-stricken creature of God to whom
no one would pay even a day's visit. On the other hand, Lemoosa25 has emphasized
the Samburu symbiotic relationship with livestock. He notes that they devoted
considerable amount of their energies and time in serving the need of their
livestock, they guarded them against wild animals day and night. Furthermore,

21 Hopkins, A.G. An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1972).

22 Sie. D. “The Effects of Wealth on Livestock Dynamics among the Datoga Pastoralists of Tanzania”. Institute
of Biological Anthropology, University of Oxford.
23 Huntingford, G. The Nandi of Kenya Tribal Control in a Pastoral Society. London: Rutledge and Kenyan

Paul Ltd. (1953).

24 Towett, T. Oral Traditional History of the Kipsigis. (Nairobi, 1979).
25 Lemoosa, P. “A Historical Study of the Economic Transformation of the Samburu of the North Central

Kenya, 1909-1963” MA Thesis. Kenyatta University. (1998), 48.

 29

they would compose songs about them, and make tethering-cords and ornaments
for them. They would even wash their hands and faces in the urine of the cattle.
The above studies demonstrate that the pre-colonial African societies had a lot of
attachment with their livestock. They will be useful in interrogating attachment
placed on livestock in among the Akamba of Machakos.
One of the studies that has attempted to document the pre-colonial Akamba
livestock economy is by Mutiso26. He has attempted to look at precolonial livestock
economy among the Akamba of Kitui. He observes that the strength of the Akamba
attachment towards livestock is indicated by the importance of cattle posts. He
demonstrates that cattle played an important subsistence and social roles among
the Kitui Akamba during the pre-colonial rule. Although the study has been done
in Kitui, it has a wealth of information about Akamba livestock economy on the
eve of colonial rule.

From the above reviewed works, it is evident that the nature and significance of
livestock among the Akamba of Machakos during the pre-colonial era has not
received adequate attention, a gap that this study seeks to fill.

1.8.2 The Impact of Colonial Polices on Livestock

Economy in Africa
There are several historical studies that show how pre-colonial economies became
dominated by colonial capitalism. Authors such as Rodney27and Leys28 have used
the underdevelopment paradigm to explain the outcome of the incorporation of
African economies into the world capitalist system. They contend that this
integration created a situation in which the capitalist modes took center stage thus
relegating the pre-capitalist societies to the periphery. They further note that this
relation culminated into domination, subordination and exploitation of pre-
capitalist social formation which led to uprooting or replacement of the existing
social, economic, political and cultural institution and relations by the capitalist
structures. This study will employ the articulation school to examine the extent to
which the Akamba livestock keepers in Machakos either resisted or succumbed to
the policies embedded in colonial capitalism.

While examining the impact of the introduction of currency in pre-colonial

Buganda, Pallaver29 has underscored the crucial impact of the introduction of

26 Mutiso, G. “Kitui; Ecosystems, Integration and Change”, in B.A. Ogot (Ed). Ecology and History in East
Africa (Nairobi, 1979), 135.
27 Rodney, W. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Dar es Salaam, 1972).
28 Leys, C. Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neocolonialism 1964- 1971 (London, 1975).
29 Pallaver, K. “The African Native Has No Pockets. (2015), (478-480).
 30

currency on the value of cattle among the Buganda. The imposition of colonial
rule in Uganda according to him changed the role of livestock in African societies.
He is of the view that with the introduction of currency, cattle ceased to be a
measure of wealth and that the motivation for the introduction of the currency
was not for the benefit of the Africans but that of colonial government. The article
provided useful insights for this study as it shows some of the ways the livestock
economy in the communities studied were affected by colonialism. However, the
study is not only brief but also tends to narrowly focus on the role of cattle as a
medium of exchange. In other words, the study does not show the social structure
that emerged from the process of articulation of modes of production and how that
transformation was reflected in livestock production.

One of the few historical studies on colonial livestock economy in a Kenyan

community has been done by Ndege30. The study has documented the colonial
transformation of the cattle economy in Rongo. It shows how colonial policies on
the people of Rongo rendered the cattle economy in Rongo dormant in spite of the
favorable ecology of the region suitable for a mixed economy of crop and livestock
production. He argues that on the eve of colonialism, Rongo had a robust cattle
economy but by the time colonial rule ended, cattle were no longer the mainstay
of Rongo division. He further adds that the monetization of the economy
facilitated the development of cattle trade and the transformation of the purpose
of cattle production from the satisfaction of domestic needs to profit making. The
author blames the colonial state, whose policies were basically meant to support a
settler economy, for turning Rongo division into a reservoir of cheap labour
through tax demands, forcible labor recruitment and conscription into the
colonial army during the two world wars. Ndege’s study provides useful insights
for the present study as it shows some of the ways the community studied adjusted
to the socio-economic changes imposed on them by the colonial state. However,
the study has been done on a community with a somehow different socio-
ecological background as opposed to Machakos. The present study thus seeks to
uncover the extent to which similar adjustments were witnessed in Machakos
given that it has quite a different socio-ecological setting.

There have also been a number of local level studies which are relevant and useful
to this study. The importance of livestock as a major component of the economy
of the Akamba people has received some attention from several scholars.
Matheka31 has done a study on the political ecology of famine in Machakos. His

30 Ndege. G. “The Transformation of Cattle Economy in Rongo Division, South Nyanza District, 1900 to
1960”. MA Thesis. Kenyatta University. 1989.
31 Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine”.
 31

study examined how land, labour and livestock ordinances hampered the growth
of livestock sector in Machakos. He concludes that under colonialism, the Akamba
did not interact freely with their environment, rather, they just responded to
various stimuli as dictated to them by the colonial state thus, their economic
undertakings were therefore prescribed by official policy. Indeed, this was the
midwifery role of the colonial state in the articulation between the capitalist mode
of production and the traditional Akamba economy whereby the later suffered
destruction. The work will enrich this study with useful information on the
destruction of the economic structure particularly the livestock production of the
Machakos Akamba during the colonial period.

1.8.3 African Response to Colonial Policies on

Livestock

Not only did different systems of development have different reactions to imperial
capitalism, they also had different reactions among them.32 This is to suggest that
through the colonial state's agency, Kenya's historically and culturally distinct
and complex modes of development were differently expressed to colonial
capitalism. According to Van Zwanenberg,33 the reaction of Africans to the state-
managed economy differed over time and space, depending on the economic
opportunities available to them. He notes that some Africans became migrant
laborers, others produced cash crops, others went to work as squatters on
European farms, and others enlisted in the British army. Along the same line,
Berman and Lonsdale34 state that according to the basic character of capitalist
infiltration, the essence of indigenous modes of development, the local ecology,
and resource endowment, the method of articulation differed while Cokumu35
claims that the particular impact of colonial policy on the African continent varied
according to area. While some regions were important as labor sources, others
excelled in agricultural production, mineral extraction, or both. This is to mean
that different African communities responded according to the way they were
articulated.

32 Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine”.

33 Van Zwanenberg, R.M.A. The Agricultural History of Kenya to 1939. (Nairobi, 1972).
34 Berman, B., & Lonsdale J. “Crises of Accumulation, Coercion and Colonial State: The Development of the

Labour Control System in Kenya, 1919-1929”. Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 14, No.1. 1980.
35 Cokumu, P. “The Colonial Transformation of Agriculture in Siaya”.
 32

One of the studies that touch on African responses towards colonial policies on
livestock production in Kenya has been done by Ngisirei36. She has dedicated a
chapter on African responses towards colonial policies on livestock production.
Her findings differ with the views of many scholars that the incorporation of East
Africa into the world economy led to an automatic collapse of the African
production systems. By examining specific individuals, Ngisirei’s has
demonstrated that during the colonial era, the Nandi responded to colonial
policies by taking advantage of the new cattle breeds and modern methods of
livestock keeping provided by the colonial government to improve their living
standards. They purchased high-quality cattle and developed cooperative
movements to market milk as well as milk products. Her study also shows that the
Nandi used the proceeds from the sale of milk and acquired credit facilities that
they used in expanding their dairy farming and developing their farms.
Subsequently, the successful farmers were able to send their children to school.
Her conclusion is that the colonial policies had a positive impact on the cattle
economy of the Nandi people. Ngisirei’s findings are supported by Connelly who
observes that the education and access to skills and knowledge facilitated by the
colonial government enabled individuals to benefit from development intervention
and market opportunities. He concludes that those who acquired new cattle breeds
and accepted the improved methods of livestock keeping became more successful
as opposed to those who failed to adapt to the new changes.37 The two studies are
important in interrogating the changes witnessed in Machakos as a result of the
introduction of new technology in livestock production.

Studies that have closest affinity to Machakos District are those by Bernard and
Thom, Mutiso and Munro. For instance, Bernard and Thom38 study on
population pressure in Kitui and Machakos are of the view that population
pressure in Ukambani, which became one of Kenya Colony's most difficult
problems, was probably made worse rather than abated by the colonial
government decisions and measures taken throughout much of the colonial era.
For instance, the Akamba responded to the colonial government’s encouragement
of fixed crop agriculture by limiting the range of grazing areas. The study is useful
to the present study as it demonstrates some of the ways the people of Machakos

36 Ngisirei. R. “British Colonial Transformation of Indigineous Cattle Production and the Socio-Economic
Effects among the Nandi of Kenya, 1890-1963”. MA Thesis. Kisii University. (2017).
37 Conneley, W.T. “Colonial Era Livestock Development Policy; Introduction of Improved Dairy Cattle in High

Potential Farming Areas of Kenya”. World development 26. (1998), 1740.

38 Bernard, F., & Thom, D. “Population Pressure and Human Carrying Capacity in Selected Locations of

Machakos and Kitui District”. Journal of Developing Areas. (1981), 390-91.

 33

district responded to colonial policies. However, it has mainly looked at general

responses rather than the responses geared towards livestock production.
The reviewed literature demonstrates that at present, there are studies that discuss
the impact of colonial capitalism on the African pre-colonial modes of production.
However, most of the studies have focused their attention on the production and
export of cash crops such as cotton, coffee, tea and groundnuts. Thus, livestock
production has suffered neglect. Other studies have particularly looked at the
impact of colonialism on livestock production and economic development of the
continent. However, these studies focus on the entire continent. Consequently, the
solutions they propose are general tailored to cover the whole continent and hence
cannot be used to explain developments occurring in specific regions of Africa. A
few studies that have attempted to address the colonial livestock transformation
have been done on specific communities while a majority of them are based on
nomadic pastoralism. Hence, the conclusions of such local level studies on
sections of the country cannot be used as a representative of all the communities.
Several studies have also attempted to address the effect of colonial capitalism on
Machakos economy. They have to a large extent dwelt on environmental
degradation and its role in generating food crises in Machakos during the colonial
period. However, no specific study has been done on the livestock economy among
the Akamba of Machakos. In a nutshell, it can be argued that the history of the
colonial transformation of livestock economy in Machakos is almost unwritten.
Indeed, more fundamental aspects relating to the significance of livestock in the
pre-colonial period and how this changed immediately after white occupation
have scarcely received historical analysis. The present study therefore seeks to
address this lacuna.

8. justification of the study

The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended
research. You should therefore explain why your research is
important (for example, by explaining how your research builds on
and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or by setting
out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed topic).
A preliminary survey on the existing works related to the study showed that there
is hardly any engrossing literature on the subject of the Akamba livestock
economy. Whatever exists in form of written (both published and unpublished)
 34

scholarly works is fragmentary and often relates to the effect of land degradation
and subsequent destocking policy during the colonial era without presenting a
coherent and systematic historical account of the changes witnessed in the
Akamba livestock production in the era of colonial rule. As a matter of fact, the
information related to the history of livestock economy of the Akamba people
during the colonial period is almost unwritten. As such, this study will address this
gap by assessing the role played by the colonial capitalism in transforming
livestock economy in Machakos from 1895 to 1963 with an aim of creating an
understanding of the reason behind poor performance in this crucial sector of the
Akamba economy.

The findings of this study are expected to be useful to policy makers both at the
national and county levels in policy formulation on livestock production. It is also
expected that the outcomes of this study will go a long way into building the
historiography of the history of livestock economy in Kenya, East Africa and the
continent as a whole, inspiring other scholars and researchers and acting as
reference resource for other scholars.

9. Theoretical framework.
The theoretical framework is the “blueprint” for the entire
dissertation inquiry. It serves as the guide on which to build and
support your study, and also provides the structure to define how
you will philosophically, epistemologically, methodologically, and
analytically approach the dissertation as a whole. Eisenhart defined
a theoretical framework as “a structure that guides research by
relying on a formal theory...constructed by using an established,
coherent explanation of certain phenomena and relationships” (1991,
p. 205). Thus, the theoretical framework consists of the selected
theory (or theories) that undergirds your thinking with regards to how
you understand and plan to research your topic, as well as the
concepts and definitions from that theory that are relevant to your
topic.
 35

11.1 Importance of theoretical framework in research:

The theoretical framework is one of the main parts of the research
manuscript. It should be presented in the first section of all
dissertations.

It is the structure that holds or supports a theory by introducing and

describing it as to what research problem it exists.

It demonstrates an understanding of theories and concepts relevant

to the topic of the research. And it provides the broader areas of
knowledge under consideration.

The explicit statement of the theoretical assumptions enables its

reader to evaluate it critically.

It connects the researcher to the existing knowledge through

guidance by relevant theory, also, by providing the basis of the
hypotheses and the choices of the research method

The theoretical framework is vital to all researches to clarify the

implicit theory in a manner that is more clearly defined. It may also
provide researchers to consider their limitations and alternative
theories that challenge their perspective. It is what all academic
supervisors check in the first place, and they better understand the
research problem with the right theoretical framework.

It helps researchers to generalize the various aspects of an observed

phenomenon from simply describing it and also identifies their limits.

It specifies the key variables that influence a phenomenon of interest

and highlights the necessity to examine them for what circumstances
they might differ

It limits the scope of the relevant data by focusing on a specific

variable, and also, defines the view the researcher should take in
analyzing and interpreting the data to be collected

By validating and challenging theoretical assumptions, it facilitates

the understanding of concepts and variables as per the given
definitions and builds new knowledge.
 36

It helps to address the questions of ‘how’ and ‘why’ by articulating

the theoretical assumptions of a research

FOR EXAMPLE:

This study argues that the economic organization of a given society can best be
understood in the historical context of that society. This is to say that the economic
development of any society cannot be separated from the society's system of
production and distribution. Therefore, in order to understand the transformation
of livestock production in colonial Machakos, there is a need to investigate the
pre-colonial livestock economy of the Akamba and how that economy became
integrated to colonial capitalism. The study will therefore be guided by two
theories namely; the articulation of modes of production and the agency theory.

Articulation of Modes of Production

The theory of articulation of modes of production advanced by P.P. Rey39 and
Claude Meillassoux40combines the ideas of the dependence viewpoint (unequal
trade, shifting international divisions of labor, unequal growth, and so on) with
the Marxist perspective of accumulation within the field of production and
processes of class formation and struggle. As a result, it encompasses the political,
technological, and social aspects of transition in a single historical phase.41

Rey identifies three major stages in the process of articulation. One, capitalism
reinforces the pre-capitalist modes. Two, capitalism subordinates the pre capitalist
whilst still using it. Three, capitalism does away with the pre capitalist totally. He
emphasizes that despite its bid to substitute itself for the old modes of production,
capitalism still needed these modes of production for a long time so that both can
get supplies and labor power from them. In the same vein, Meillassoux emphasizes
that to subsidize and cheapen the reproduction of labor in the capitalist sector,
capitalism must coexist or be articulated with these modes of production. He is of
the view that the articulation between two modes must be understood not as a static
or stable condition, but as a process.

According to this school of thought, the emergence of modern production modes

did not totally abolish pre-capitalist modes of production, but rather reshaped
them. As a result, through a mechanism of fragmentation, conservation, and

39 Rey, P. & Becker, J. “Class Alliances”. International Journal of Sociology. Vol 12, No 2. (1992).
40 Meil1assoux, C. “The Social Organisation of the Peasantry: The Economic Basis of Kinship”. Journal of
Peasant Studies, Vol. 1, No.1, 81-90. (1973).
41 Gutkind, P.C.W., & Wallerstein, E. (Eds). The Political Economy of Contemporary Africa. (Beverley Hills,

1976).
 37

adaptation, indigenous modes of production were gradually subordinated to the

capitalist mode.42 In support of this view, Berman,43 argues that articulation of
modes of production is a very complex process which involved the penetration,
subjugation, destruction, conservation and transformation of the non-capitalist
modes of production as a result of their integration into the colonial capitalist
system. In pre-colonial African formations, for example, the dominant modes of
production were feudal, tributary, slave or pastoral.44 On distinct words, both of
these types were absorbed into multinational capitalism. It should be noted that
the African modes of production mentioned above are general definitions that do
not encompass Africa's varied and complex historical reality. As a result, rather
than labeling social formations, it is necessary to define the pre-capitalist style in
question as it applies to different communities. It is simple to analyze the
articulation of a specific social structure with capitalism until the complexities of
that social formation are understood.45

In view of the foregoing, Mudzinganyama46 summarizes his study about the

articulation of the modes of production in Bechuanaland by arguing that by the
1940s, Bechuanaland had been turned into a labor pool for South Africa as a
result of the articulation between pre-colonial society and the colonial capitalist
regime. He outlines the major aspects of the British colonial policies which led to
this transformation. The major aspects that he outlines are as follows: 1) changes
in the traditional system of administration and its replacement by a three tier
system of government consisting of the High Commissioner, the Resident
Commissioner and the Chiefs; 2) the alienation of a much larger percentage of
the most fertile land for European settlers; 3) introduction of monetary taxation;
4) restriction on African trading; and 5) introduction of European goods. The
ultimate result of these policies, he observes, was to turn what was once a tributary
society into one that relied on labor migration for subsistence or well-being.

In Kenya, land alienation, tariffs, and forced labour were some of the policies
introduced by the colonial state in colonial Kenya to compel Africans to submit to
the measures enforced by the colonial state. However, certain elements of pre-
capitalist African societies, such as land tenure structures, were left intact in order
for these economies to replicate cheap labor, thus subsidizing wealth. However,

42 Meillassoux, C. The Social Organisation of the Peasantry.

43 Berman B. “Articulation, Class Struggle and the Specification of the Colonial State”, Paper Presented at
the Conference of the African Studies Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, October (1980).
44 Cliffe, L. “Rural Class Formation in East Africa”. The Journal of Peasant Studies. Vol. 4, No.2, (1977), 199.
45 Zeleza, T. "The Political Economy of British Colonial and Welfare in Africa". Transafrican Journal of

History, Vol. 15. (1985).

46 Mudzinganyama, N. “Articulation of the Modes of Production and the Development of a Labour Reservoir

in Southern Africa”. 1885-1944: The Case of Bechuanaland. Botswana Notes and Records, Vol.15. (1983).
 38

those efforts were not necessarily fruitful and, in most circumstances, they were
met with resistance from the colonized.47

Similar views are shared by Makana48 who draws our attention to the state policies
on cultivation of coffee in Bungoma during colonial period. He points out that the
state formulated policies which revolved around the provision of inputs, training
of locals in agricultural production, determining both what was to be produced
and how it was to be produced, supervising the production, determining the quality
of the produce and even, where the produce would be marketed.

Thus, the viewpoint of articulation of modes of production traces the historical

mechanism by which the African indigenous productive system, or rather pre-
capitalist societies, is invaded by colonial capitalism's policies. In general, this was
a complicated, conflict-ridden, and chaotic operation. As Berman49 stresses,
articulation was partly an intentional and partly accidental mechanism of
confusion and conflict that seldom corresponded specifically with the goal or
desires of the historical agent, thus the need to understand the colonial state's
critical and conflicting position in the process and the variable responses of
African communities in resisting or accepting capitalism.
In conclusion, the study maintains that articulating African modes of development
with colonial modes of production has harmed the former. Therefore, this study
will utilise the analytical viewpoint of articulation of modes of production, a
perspective that proved useful in studying the impact of colonial capitalism on the
livestock economy of the Akamba of Machakos. However, the theory of
articulation of modes of production does not provide room for analyzing the
Akamba as key players of this process. To fill this gap, the study will also utilize
the agency theory.

The Agency Theory

Agency implies the right to exercise a degree of influence over the social ties in
which one is entangled, which implies the ability to transform certain social
relations to some extent. People have the ability to think for themselves and behave
in ways that affect their experiences and life trajectories in this
situation.50 Anderson51 has observed that during the colonial period, the Africans
47 Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine”.
48 Makana, N. “Metropolitan Concern, Colonial State Policy and the Embargo on Cultivation of Coffee by
Africans in Colonial Kenya: The Example of Bungoma District, 1930-1960”. History in Africa, 36. (2009).
49 Berman, B.J. “The Concept of 'Articulation' and the Political Economy of Colonialism”. Canadian Journal

of African Studies, Vol. 18, No.2, (1984), 407-14.

50 William. H & Sewell, J. “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation”. American Journal
of Sociology, Vol. 98, No. 1. (1992).
51 Anderson, D. Eroding the Commons: The Politics of Ecology in Baringo, Kenya; 1890-1963 (Nairobi, 2002).
 39

producers used their own innovative and creative power to circumvent around the
colonial state capitalist conditions to make their own lives better or gain from the
imposed situations.52
Omwoyo’s53 study about the agricultural changes in Kipsigis land contends that
the indigenous agricultural organization of the Africans did not disappear during
the colonial period. Rather, it kept readjusting and co-existed with the colonial
capitalist sector in a contradictory manner of ''destruction/preservation'' or
''conservation/dissolution''. It emerges more clearly from his study that although
agricultural land, animal husbandry, labour, and trade policies were aimed at
achieving maximum benefits for the white settlers and the colonial state, the
Kipsigis seem to have reacted in their own ways to exploit such policies for their
own economic advantages. Thus, the Kipsigis were definitely not passive to the
new colonial agricultural policies. They perceived them correctly, accepting those
that were of benefit to them while rejecting the undesirable ones, even if for a
while.

In Machakos context, the study maintains that the Akamba responded to colonial
capitalism as receptive agents ready accommodate, absorb and assimilate new
practices into their traditional livestock economy. The Akamba therefore, retained
what they deemed beneficial to their livestock economy and restructured their
traditional systems of production with the new and progressive ideas from the
colonial state with what they considered beneficial to them. With this progressive
nature of the Akamba, their livestock industry structurally evolved during the
period of the study. The above discussion thus lends credence to the utility of the
agency theory in the interpretation of the colonial transformation of the livestock
industry among the Akamba of Machakos.

. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The proposal should outline your research methods. This includes
the research design, the study area, sources of data, research
instruments, and methods of collect and analyzing data, target

52Ibid.
53Omwoyo, S. “The Agricultural Changes in the Kipsigis Land, 1894-1963: An Historical Inquiry”. PhD.
Thesis, Kenyatta University. (2012).
 40

population, sample and sampling procedure, ethical consideration

e.t.c.

12.1. Research Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical
approach that you have chosen in order to integrate, in a coherent
and logical way, the different components of the study, thus
ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly
investigated. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and interpretation of information and data. Note
that the research problem determines the type of design you
choose, not the other way around.

 Descriptive Research Design

 Correlational Research Design
 Experimental Research Design
 Diagnostic Research Design
 Explanatory Research Design
 Historical Research Design

 Historical Research Design

.10.2 Research Design

This method involves the systematic and objective location,

evaluation, and synthesis of evidence to establish facts and draw
conclusions about past events. Historical research aims to show the
importance of past events in the present situation. This research can
provide a perspective for decision-making about current problems
and some issues are often better understood if we understand the
historical perspective. The research solely depends upon secondary
data such as books, journals, magazines, newspapers, historical
 41

records, diaries, documents, etc. There are very limited sources of

historical information and many assumptions are found in this
research.

The study will be based on historical research design which according to

Walliman54 is the systematic and impartial gathering, evaluating, and synthesis of
data to collect information and draw conclusions regarding historical events. It
entails delving into the context and connections between events, as well as the use
of primary and secondary historical evidence in the form of writings, objects, and
documents. The references must be both reliable and authentic. The importance
of historical analysis is that it allows for the quest for solutions to current issues
in the past. As a result, an understanding of the meanings and an evaluation of
the events' importance are needed. Thus, the historical research design will act
as a sketch map through time and space that will help the researcher to narrate
the economic transformation particularly the livestock economy of the Akamba.
STUDY AREA

Research locale is a term that refers to a specified area and/or

subject that is being studied in a research project.
The study will be conducted in Machakos County formerly Machakos District in
the period 1895-1963. Machakos County is one of the forty seven counties in
Kenya and one of the eight counties in the Eastern region.55Machakos District
forms part of former Kenya's Eastern Province (and in the 1950s, was part of what
was called Southern Province). According to Matheka,56Machakos District was
in the former Eastern Province, Kenya. From 1895 to 1902 the Machakos area
together with Kitui formed Athi District in the then Ukamba Province of the East
Africa Protectorate. In 1902 Athi District was split into two and the Machakos
area came to be known as Ulu District. It existed under that name until 1920 when
it was renamed Machakos District. In 1933, Ukamba Province was joined to
Kikuyu province to form Central Province.57 The District was part of Central
Province until 1953 when Machakos and Kitui Districts were severed from Central
Province and joined Kajiado and Narok Districts into a new Southern Province.
However, on the recommendations of the Regional Boundaries Commission of
1962, Machakos District became part of Eastern Province at independence in
54
Walliman, N. Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your Work, 3rd Edition (London, 2011).
55
Tiffen, M., et al. More People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in Kenya (Chichester, 1994), 17.
56
Matheka, R. (1992). “The Political Economy of Famine”.
57
Maxon, R., & Ofcansky, T. Historical Dictionary of Kenya: African Historical Dictionaries, No. 77, (2nd Ed).
(London, 2000), 249.
 42

1963.58 In 1910, following the amalgamation of the Constitution of Kenya 2010,

it changed from Machakos district to Machakos County.59

Target Population

Target population in statistics is the specific population about which

information is desired.
The study will target those who engaged in different livestock ventures especially
on the eve of independence. Accordingly, those who owned livestock or looked
after livestock, active traders in livestock and related products. Emphasis will be
laid not only on those who owned and traded in livestock, but also those who
prepared livestock products for consumption or exchange and were active in those
chores by about 1963. In addition, colonial chiefs and members of African District
Council (ADCs)

sampling technique and sample size

A sampling technique is the name or other identification of the specific process by which
the entities of the sample will be selected.
IT is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the
population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate the
characteristics of the whole population. There are different types of
sampling.

NB: READ ABOUT TYPES OF SAMPLING

Sample size is a research term used for defining the number of

individuals included in a research study to represent a population.
The sample size references the total number of respondents included
in a study, and the number is often broken down into sub-groups by

58
Matheka, R. “The Political Economy of Famine”.
59
Government of Kenya. The Constitution of Kenya 2010. Nairobi: Government Printers. (2010).
 43

demographics such as age, gender, and location so that the total

sample achieves represents the entire population. Determining the
appropriate sample size is one of the most important factors in
statistical analysis. If the sample size is too small, it will not yield
valid results or adequately represent the realities of the population
being studied. On the other hand, while larger sample sizes yield
smaller margins of error and are more representative, a sample size
that is too large may significantly increase the cost and time taken to
conduct the research.
To identify informants, snowball sampling procedure will be used to identify
particular individuals, especially those who engaged in different livestock ventures
especially on the eve of independence. Accordingly, those who owned livestock or
looked after livestock, active traders in livestock and related products will be
identified and interviewed. Emphasis will be laid not only on those who owned
and traded in livestock, but also those who prepared livestock products for
consumption or exchange and were active in those chores by about 1963. In
addition, colonial chiefs and members of African District Council (ADCs) will be
identified and interviewed. Accordingly there will be three categories of
respondents. To ensure that all the three categories are included in the sample
frame, one person from each category from each sub-county in Machakos County
will be included in the study. Accordingly, three people from each of the eight sub-
counties of Machakos County will be brought within the sample frame. This will
bring the total number of informants to 24.

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research
problem and evaluate the outcomes. Data collection methods can be divided into two
categories: Qualitative Research Method and Quantitative Method.

 Qualitative Research Method

 44

The qualitative research methods of data collection do not involve

the collection of data that involves numbers or a need to be
deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it is based on
the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the
researcher. An example of such a method is an open-ended
questionnaire.

 Quantitative Method

Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a

mathematical calculation to deduce. An example would be the use
of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive at figures
to be calculated Mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and
regression, mean, mode and median.

RESEARCH TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to

collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted
interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all
tools used to collect data.

It is important to decide the tools for data collection because

research is carried out in different ways and for different purposes.
The objective behind data collection is to capture quality evidence
that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and
credible answers to the posed questions. The tools include:

Interview

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals

with the sole purpose of collecting relevant information to satisfy a
research purpose.
 45

Questionnaires

This is the process of collecting data through an instrument

consisting of a series of questions and prompts to receive a
response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.

For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn’t a

survey, rather it forms a part of it. A survey is a process of data
gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including
a questionnaire.

Sources of Historical Data

All the material which has a direct bearing or can be any assistance in constructing the
history of a particular period is called as historical facts or sources. The historical
sources can be of two types, i.e. Primary and Secondary Sources.

Primary Sources.

A primary source is the evidence of an eye witness or mechanical device which

was present at the time of the occurrence of an event. It is the work of the
historian to convert the scattered difficult primary evidences into coherent,
intelligible secondary sources.

The primary sources can be classified into the following categories:

(1) Contemporary Records: These types of primary sources are in the form of
the instruction documents, records, the business and legal paper and
autobiographies, etc. The instruction documents may be in the form of an
appointment notification, and direction from foreign office to the ambassador
etc. Generally such documents have very little chance of error but it is essential
to ascertain their authenticity. The Business and legal letters consists of the
bills, journals, leases, wills, tax records which gives an insight into the working
of the firm’s as well as the persons. The autobiographies are a credible source
of history because they are very close to the events with which they deal and
written by a person himself. These are non- prejudicial.

(2) Confidential Reports: The confidential reports are not intended for general
audience and are less reliable than the contemporary sources. These types of
reports are generally in the forms of military and diplomatic dispatches,
Journals, diaries or memoirs and personal letters.
 46

(3)Public Reports: The public reports are meant for general public and less
reliable. There are three types of public reports and each possesses a different
degree of reliability, such as— Newspaper reports and dispatches are more
reliable which depends upon the agency from which it originated and the
newspaper in which it is published; Memoirs and autobiographies are another
public reports which are written for the public at the close of the life when the
memoirs of author is fading and are therefore, not very reliable and the official
histories of the activities of government or business house are also an important
kind of public reports. They possess incriminating material and less reliable.

(4) Government Documents: Numerous government documents are compiled

which are also a source of vital importance to the historians such as statistics
about fiscal, census and vital matters which can be made use of by the
historians. All these reports have first hand importance, but require proper
evaluation before the use.

5). Public Opinion: The public opinion as expressed in editorials, speeches,

pamphlets, letter to editor are another important source available to the
historian, But authenticity of this must be corroborated by other evidence
because public opinion may not be always reliable.

(6) Oral Sources: This include oral sources like the folklores which reveal the
stories of legendary heroes. They are also an important source of history. They
tell us about the aspirations, superstitions and customs of the people among
whom the stories developed, songs, riddles, proverbs. Oral Interviews in Data
Collection This involves contacting a face to face interviews with the informants
who are well informed in your research area.

Secondary Sources
A secondary source is one in which the eyewitness or the participant i.e. the
person describing the event was not actually present but who obtained his/her
descriptions or narrations from another person or source. This person may or
may not be a primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct
physical relationship with the event being studies. They include data which are
not original. Examples of secondary sources include textbooks, biographies,
encyclopedias, reference books, replicas of art objects and paintings and so on.
It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due to passing of information
from one source to another. These errors could get multiplied when the
information passes through many sources thereby resulting in an error of some
magnitude in the final data. Thus, wherever possible, the researcher should try
to use primary sources of data. However, that does not reduce the value of
secondary sources. In conclusion, the various sources of historical information
both primary and secondary can be summarized as follows: It must be mentioned
here that the branch of historical research using all or some types of oral records
 47

is known as oral history. It should also be mentioned here that some objects can
be classified as documents or relics depending on the how they are used in a
historical study. For example, in a research study on how a historical figure (a
politician, a freedom fighter or a social reformer) is presented in textbooks of
different periods, the textbook will be classified as a document as the emphasis
here is on analyzing its content-matter given in a verbal form. On the other hand,
in a research study on printing methods in the past, the textbook can be used
as a relic as the focus here is not on analyzing its contents but on its physical,
outward characteristics or features. Example;

The study will utilize both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be
obtained from two major sources namely, archival and oral sources from the
people of Machakos.

Before the commencement of oral interviews, archival research will be undertaken

at the Kenya National Archives. Several records pertaining to colonial policies will
be perused through and analyzed. The most targeted records will be the ones that
focus on the Athi District and the Ukamba Province, Ulu District, Machakos
district, Central Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, District and
Provincial Annual Reports of the aforementioned administrative units, Annual
Reports of the Agriculture and veterinary departments, Political Record books, the
colonial handing-over Reports, Minutes of the Machakos Local Native Council,
Memoranda on issues like soil erosion, destocking, etc. Archival research has the
following advantages; first, archival analysis tends to reduce response biases since
the researcher was not present when the data was collected. Second, it's much less
expensive because the data has already been gathered. However, archival data has
some limitations in that the data may be lost or incorrectly entered. This challenge
will be addressed by utilizing written and oral sources to reinforce the archival
sources.

Therefore, in addition to archival sources, oral interviews will also be conducted.

They will be used to cross-check and supplement data from archival sources. In
order to get the right informants who participated in livestock industry, purposive
sampling procedure will be used to identify the informants. Assistance will be
sought from the chiefs, assistant chiefs and headmen in the district who will
provide the names of some informants. To identify more informants, snowball
sampling procedure was used to identify particular individuals, especially those
who engaged in different livestock ventures especially on the eve of independence.
Accordingly, those who owned livestock or looked after livestock, active traders in
livestock and related products will be identified and interviewed. Emphasis will be
laid not only on those who owned and traded in livestock, but also those who
prepared livestock products for consumption or exchange and were active in those
 48

chores by about 1963. In addition, colonial chiefs and members of African District
Council (ADCs) were identified and interviewed. Accordingly there will be three
categories of respondents. To ensure that all the three categories are included in
the sample frame, one person from each category from each sub-county in
Machakos County will be included in the interview. Accordingly, three people
from each of the eight sub-counties of Machakos County will be brought within
the sample frame. This will bring the total number of informants to 24.
The interviews schedules will contain open ended questions. The interviews will
be conducted using English, Kiswahili and Kikamba languages depending on the
respondent’s ability to understand and/or speak either of the languages. This will
be done to ensure that there is no communication barrier and also to ensure a two-
way dialogue between the interviewer and the informants. During the interview,
sound recording using the cell phone and note taking will be used simultaneously
in order to ensure that all the data is captured properly. The sound record will be
interpreted and transcribed at the end of the working day and the information
synthesized within the set themes of the objectives. The interview schedules will be
ideal for the researcher because they will assist to get the response directly from
the respondents. In addition, in the event of unclear responses, the researcher will
be able to probe the respondents further for confirmation. The interview schedules
will also assist the researcher to clarify the topic of conversation better and
encourage both literate and illiterate informants to respond to questions. Borg
and Gall60 corroborate this as they argue that interviewing helps the researcher to
elicit knowledge from the respondent on particular subjects and also helps the
interviewer to draw inferences about what the respondent tells, both verbally and
non-verbally. However, despite the many advantages, interview schedules have
some limitations. For instance, they can be time consuming.

A part from the primary data, secondary data will also be utilized. It will be
obtained from library and internet sources. The first task will be to study all the
studies relevant to the subject. These studies will be vital in identifying the gaps
and shortcomings that exist in the available literature. Works on livestock
production and management, the structure and functioning of pre-colonial and
colonial economies, socio-economic transition during the colonial era, and the
role of the colonial state in the transformation of colonial African economies will
all be given special attention. In addition, literature on pre-colonial livestock
economies in Africa will be reviewed to identify their salient features since this

60
Borg, W. R., and Gall, M. D. Educational Research: An Introduction (Fifth Ed.) (New York, 2003).
 49

will be vital in the provision of background information upon which structural

continuities and discontinuities in the colonial period will be examined.
After gathering information from the library, Kenya National Archives and field
research, data from all the sources will be cross-checked, synthesized and
analyzed. Data from secondary sources such as newspapers, books, government
documents, and unpublished articles, reports, theses, and dissertations will help to
enhance the analysis of primary evidence. These secondary sources will be
particularly helpful in synthesizing, comparing, and potentially analyzing primary
data from archival and oral sources. Both qualitative and quantitative data will
be utilized to evaluate the extent to which the articulation of the capitalist modes
of production with the pre-capitalist modes of production resulted into destruction
of the livestock sector among the Akamba of Machakos. Quantitative data will be
used to reinforce qualitative data. The historical narrative will then be presented
in chapter form taking into account both thematic and chronological
considerations while at the same time addressing the objectives of the study.

Reference list or bibliography

Your research proposal must include proper citations for every
source you have used, and full publication details should always be
included in the reference list. To create citations quickly and easily,
you can use our free APA citation generator.
In some cases, you might be asked to include a bibliography. This is
a list of all the sources you consulted in preparing the proposal, even
ones you did not cite in the text, and sometimes also other relevant
sources that you plan to read. The aim is to show the full range of
literature that will support your research project.

DATA INTERPRETATION AND SYNTHESIS INTO A

NARRATIVE ACCOUNT
 50

After collection of data, the historian must now interprete synthesis,

analyse his findings. It is the climax stage in historical research. It
represents the actual writing of the thesis of history. It involves
explaining or making clear by giving details. It is the presentation of
historical facts in an intelligent, intelligible and interesting way. It is
up to the researcher to make his writing a work of art. Facts must
be presented in a fascinating way and imagination plays a key role
in exposition. Originality, clarity and lucidity are the hallmarks of
exposition.

Data synthesis includes selecting, organising, and analysing the

data in terms of topical themes and central ideas or concepts. Then,
these themes and central ideas are put together to form a narrative
account that is contiguous and meaningful whole. “Synthesis of
historical data is the most difficult step of all. A conceptual scheme
must be developed around which the facts are to be organised, with
an appropriate logical sequence of topics and points. Then a
detailed outline is prepared. Finally, the narrative is composed with
due concern for balanced presentation and the leavening of
generalization with illustration” (Daniels, 1996, p.228).
A good historian makes an effort to:

•give the most meaningful representation of reality,

•fill up gaps wherever those exist, giving necessary explanations,

•reconcile inconsistencies in the data,

•carefully conjure up an intelligent guess, where facts are lacking
but admits honestly
that he is using an intelligent and educated guess, and
•provide footnotes and bibliography, citing original sources and
scholarly
authorities, used by him to
arrive at the conclusions.
 51

A good historian employs lucid and logical expression to present his

findings along with supporting evidence to his intended audience
consisting of knowledgeable critics and scholars. In presenting a
report, the following guidelines should be kept in view:

•The evidence and conclusions should be presented (written) in a

way whereby these can be communicated to the concerned readers
effectively.

• The researcher should use his intelligence, imagination and sense

of discrimination just like a good detective, to provide a narrative
exposition that is both contiguous and meaningful.

•The write up should be interesting, graceful and flowing narrative

using readable but scholarly style, with emphasis on clarity and
continuity of thought.

•All aspects of the topic as well as the problem must be covered.

•He must accurately describe the past, incorporating historical

evidence, blending it into the account. He must be careful to not to
simplify or misrepresent.

•Historical research due to its very nature often is subjective in

nature. Thus, relatively speaking, it is susceptible to researcher
bias. In any case, he must avoid bias or misjudgment. However, a
historian should follow a style of presentation that is objective but
not lacking in feeling or colour. In case a researcher feels that he
has
 52

a known bias, as an honest researcher, he must state the same

clearly, so that the reader can form his or her own judgment
regarding the interpretations and conclusions drawn by the author.

•The evidence must be analysed and interpreted so that it supports

the hypotheses (if any) and conclusions.

•The conclusions arrived at and the supporting evidence should be

presented in a clear and unambiguous prose.

•Complex ideas need to be explained in a simple style without being

simplified.
•A good historian is one who accepts the fact that his conclusions
are tentative and should always be willing to revise or reject his
conclusions in the light of new data that may become available later
on. At times, skepticism is necessary and serves a useful purpose.

•Facts and interpretation should be presented along with

documented evidence: (a) whereby the readers can evaluate the
conclusions reached at by the researcher. In other words, readers
can critically examine the documented sources to find out whether
or not, they would have arrived at the same conclusions as drawn
by the researcher, (b) documented evidence can also enable other
researchers to replicate the study, resulting in greater scientific
accuracy, This is how knowledge advances.

•Above all, a researcher must display intellectual honesty-avoid

plagiarism.
 53

PLANNING THE WRITING

The writing of the thesis has to be properly planned and organized.

The parts must be fitted into the whole. The ideas are to be
arranged in a logical order. The thoughts must be treated in a single
unified discourse. Distractions and irrelevancies should be
scrupulously avoided. The historical material must be so planed as
to ensure unity, coherence and flow. One group of facts should
logically follow another. Jumbling of facts will mar the unity of the
work. Form must match the content. The sections, the chapters, the
paragraphs and the sentences must be properly placed. The
organization of the thesis is indeed an art and it must be carefully,
imaginatively and patiently planned. Research writing plan is the
firm foundation on which the
mansion of history is raised.

Chapterisation

The mass of material must be given a form. The form should satisfy
the requirements of cogency, coherence and completeness. It must
ensure unity of presentation. The data must be suitably divided,
subdivided and distributed. The techniques of doing this is to
chapterise the material in hand. The purpose of a chapter is to
present a topic clearly and cogently. Each chapter must be a
selfcontained unit by itself. The chapters must be equally divided
as far as possible. One chapter of five pages and another of fifty
pages will mar the unity and balance of treatment. Since a chapter
is written on a specific topic or idea each chapter must have organic
link with the succeeding one. The sections, sub-sections and
paragraphs shall have the same organic connection. In short,
intelligent interlocking
of chapters will render the thesis really valuable.
 54

Writing Historical Research

In writing history, a writer needs to consider three aspects:

• facts.

• interpretation.

• narrative.

Without these three, there's no real history being written. For

instance, without facts you might write a novel. Fiction is
interesting and readable, but it's not history. As well, without
interpretation you have, at the least, a timetable of events. At most
you have what much genealogy is today: a description of who did
what and when, but no explanation of how it relates to a larger
world. Interpretation answers the "so what" question of history: so
your grandfather worked as a typesetter in the 1920s.

What does it mean to the development of American newspapers in

society?

The evidence

In weaving together your story (that's what hiSTORY is), you need to
consider the quality of evidence behind your facts and
interpretation. Evidence comes in two varieties:

• Primary.

• Secondary.
 55

Facts and their Synthesis. This refers to synthesizing, or putting

the material collected into a narrative account of the topic selected.
Synthesis refers to selecting, organizing, and analyzing the
materials collected into topical themes and central
ideas or concepts. These themes

are then pulled together to form a contiguous and meaningful

whole. Be sure to watch out for these four problems that might be
encountered when you attempt to synthesize the material collected
and prepare the narrative account.

Challenges during Data Interpretation

1. Trying to infer causation from correlated events is the first

problem. Just because two events occurred together does not

necessarily mean that one event was the cause of the other.

2. A second problem is defining and interpreting key words so as

to avoid ambiguity and to insure that they have the correct

connotation.

3. A third problem is differentiating between evidence indicating

how people should behave and how they in fact did behave.

4. A fourth problem is maintaining a distinction between intent

and consequences. In other words, educational historians must

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make sure that the consequences that were observed from some

activity or policy were the intended consequences.

The Role of Narrative in Presenting Historical Data

What is a narrative? Most generally, it is an account of how and

why a situation or event came to be. A narrative is intended to

provide an account of how a complex historical event unfolded and

why. We want to understand the event in time. What were the

contextual features that were relevant to the outcome—the

conditions at one or more points in time that played a role? What

were the actions and choices that agents performed, and why did

they take these actions rather than other possible choices? What

causal processes—either social or natural—may have played a role

in influencing the outcome? So a narrative seeks to provide

hermeneutic understanding of the outcome—why did actors behave

as they did in bringing about the outcome?—and causal

explanation—what social and natural processes were acting behind

the backs of the actors in bringing about the outcome? And

different narratives represent different mixes of hermeneutic and

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causal factors. A crucial and unavoidable feature of narrative

history is the fact of selectivity. The narrative historian is forced to

make choices and selections at every stage: between "significant"

and "insignificant", between "sideshow" and "main event", and

between levels of description

Narrative in history is the practice of writing history in a story-

based form. It tends to entail history-writing based on

reconstructing series of short-term events, and ever since the

influential work of Leopold von Ranke on professionalizing

historywriting in the nineteenth century has been associated with

empiricism. The term narrative history thus overlaps with the term

histoire événementielle ('eventhistory') coined by Fernand Braudel in

the early twentieth century, as he promoted forms of history-writing

analysing much longer-term trends (what he called the longue

durée).[1]

Though history is considered a social science, the story-based

nature of history allows for the inclusion of a greater or lesser

degree of narration in addition to an analytical or interpretative

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exposition of historical knowledge. It can be divided into two

subgenres: the traditional narrative and the modern narrative.

Traditional narrative focuses on the chronological order of history.

It is event driven and tends to center upon individuals, action, and

intention. For example, in regard to the French Revolution, an

historian who works with the traditional narrative might be more

interested in the revolution as a single entity (one revolution), centre

it in Paris, and rely heavily upon major figures such as Maximilien

Robespierre.

Conversely, modern narrative typically focuses on structures and

general trends. A modern narrative would break from rigid

chronology if the historian felt it explained the concept better. In

terms of the French Revolution, an historian working with the

modern narrative might show general traits that were shared by

revolutionaries across France but would also illustrate regional

variations from those general trends (many confluent revolutions).

Also this type of historian might use different sociological factors to

show why different types of people supported the general revolution.

 59

Historians who use the modern narrative might say that the

traditional narrative focuses too much on what happened and not

enough on why and causation. Also, that this form of narrative

reduces history into neat boxes and thereby does an injustice to

history. J H Hexter characterized such historians as "lumpers". In

an essay on Christopher Hill, he remarked that "lumpers do not like

accidents: they would prefer them vanish...The lumping historian

wants to put all of the past into boxes..and then to tie all the boxes

together into one nice shapely bundle."

Historians who use traditional narrative might say that the modern

narrative overburdens the reader with trivial data that had no

significant effect on the progression of history. They believe that the

historian needs to stress what is consequential in history, as

otherwise the reader might believe that minor trivial events were

more important than they were.