Cells: The Working Units of Life

A. Cells the fundamentals of Life

 Most cells are tiny

 In 1665 Robert Hooke estimated in one square inch of cork, examined under his magnifying
lens, were 1,259,712,000 cells! The diameters of cells range from about 1 to 100 micrometers
(µm)
 Antony Van Leeuwenhoek - Dutch microscopist who was the first to
observe bacteria and protozoa.
 Robert Brown – Scottish botanist and paleobotanist who made important contributions to
botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope.
 Matthias Schleiden - German botanist and co-founder of cell theory, along with Theodor
Schwann and Rudolf Virchow.
 Theodore Schwann - German physician and physiologist. His most significant contribution to
biology is considered to be the extension of cell theory to animals.
 Rudolf Virchow - German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer,
editor, and politician. He is known as "the father of modern pathology" and as the founder of
social medicine, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine"
 Cells are classified as either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic. Biologists classify all living things into
three domains:
1. Archaea - prokaryotes
2. Bacteria - prokaryotes
3. Eukarya – eukaryotes

B. Cell Theory
 The cell theory is an important unifying principle of biology.
 There are three critical components of the cell theory:
1. Cells are the fundamental units of life.
2. All living organisms are composed of cells.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells.
 To the original cell theory, first stated in 1838, should be added: “Evolution through natural
selection explains the diversity of modern cells.”
 The cell theory has three important implications:
1. Studying cell biology is in some sense the same as studying life. The principles that
underlie the functions of the single cell of a bacterium are similar to those governing
the approximately 60 trillion cells of your body.
2. Life is continuous. All those cells in your body came from a single cell, a fertilized egg
(zygote). That zygote came from the fusion of two cells, a sperm and an egg, from your
parents. The cells of your parents’ bodies were all derived from their parents, and so on
back through generations and evolution to the first living cell.
3. The origin of life on Earth was marked by the origin of the first cells.
C. Prokaryotic Cells - Features
 All prokaryotic cells have the same basic structure:
1. The plasma membrane encloses the cell, regulating the traffic of materials into and
out of the cell, and separating its interior from the external environment.
2. 2. The nucleoid is a region in the cell where the DNA is located. DNA is the
hereditary material that controls cell growth, maintenance, and reproduction.
3. 3. The rest of the material enclosed in the plasma membrane is called the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm consists of a liquid component, the cytosol, and a variety
of insoluble filaments and particles, the most abundant of which are ribosomes
4. The cytosol consists mostly of water that contains dissolved ions, small molecules,
and soluble macromolecules such as proteins.
5. Ribosomes are complexes of RNA and proteins that are about 25 nm (nanometers)
in diameter. They can only be visualized with the electron microscope. They are the
sites of protein synthesis, where information coded for in nucleic acids directs the
sequential linking of amino acids to form proteins.
6. Cell Wall is located outside the plasma membrane. Its rigidity supports the cell and
determines its shape.
7. Capsule is enclosing the cell wall of some bacteria. Capsules protect the bacteria
from attacking by the white blood cells.
8. Internal membranes are system that contains molecules needed for
photosynthesis. The development of photosynthesis, which requires membranes,
was an important event in the early evolution of life on Earth. Other prokaryotes
have internal membrane folds that are attached to the plasma membrane. These
folds may function in cell division or in various energy-releasing reactions.
9. Flagella are prokaryotes that can swim using its appendages called flagella which
looks like tiny corkscrews. It causes the motion of the cells; if they are removed, the
cells do not move.
10. Pili are structures made of protein that project from the surfaces of some types of
bacterial cells. Hair like structures are shorter than flagella and are used for
adherence.
11. Cytoskeleton is the collective name for protein filaments that play roles in cell
division or in maintaining the shapes of cells.

D. Eukaryotic Cells – Organelles

 Organelles are the membranous compartments of eukaryotic cells. Each type of organelle
has a specific role
1. Ribosomes, similar with prokaryotes, both consist of two different-sized subunits. Eukaryotic
ribosomes are somewhat larger than those of prokaryotes, but the structure of prokaryotic
ribosomes is better understood. RNA called ribosomal ribosomes are molecular factories where
proteins are synthesized
2. Nucleus is where DNA resides. Information are encoded in the DNA is translated into proteins at
the ribosomes. It is the largest organelle
 The nucleus has several functions in the cell:
1. It is the location of most of the cell’s DNA and the site of DNA replication.
 2. It is the site where gene transcription is turned on or off.
3. A region within the nucleus, the nucleolus, is where ribosomes begin to be assembled
from RNA and proteins.
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is called “rough” because of the many ribosomes attached
to the outer surface of the membrane, giving it a “rough” appearance. The RER receives into its
lumen certain newly synthesized proteins (including exported proteins and those destined for
lysosomes and the plasma membrane), segregating them away from the cytoplasm. The RER
also participates in transporting these proteins to other locations in the cell.
• While inside the RER, proteins can be chemically modified to alter their functions and to “tag”
them for delivery to specific cellular destinations. Proteins are shipped to destinations
elsewhere in the cell enclosed within vesicles that pinch off from the RER. Most membrane-
bound proteins are made in the RER
4. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes and is more tubular (and less like
flattened sacs) than the RER, but it shows continuity with portions of the RER
 The SER has four other important roles:
1) It is responsible for the chemical modification of small molecules taken in by the cell
that may be toxic to the cell. These modifications make the targeted molecules more
polar, so they are more water-soluble and easily removed.
2) It is the site for glycogen degradation in animal cells.
3) It is the site where lipids and steroids are synthesized.
4) It stores calcium ions, which when released trigger a number of cell responses, such as a
muscle contraction.
5. Golgi Apparatus receives protein-containing vesicles from the RER. It modifies, concentrates,
packages, and sorts proteins before they are sent to their cellular or extracellular destinations. It
adds carbohydrates to proteins and modifies other carbohydrates that were attached to
proteins in the RER. It is where some polysaccharides for the plant cell wall are synthesized.
6. Lysosomes are sites for the breakdown of food, other cells, or foreign objects that are taken up
by the cell. These materials enter the cell by a process called phagocytosis. The primary
lysosomes originate from the Golgi apparatus. They contain digestive enzymes, and are the sites
where macromolecules—proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids—are hydrolyzed
into their monomers.
7. Mitochondria - the breakdown of fuel molecules such as glucose begins in the cytosol. The
molecules that result from this partial degradation enter the mitochondria (singular
mitochondrion), whose primary function is to harvest the chemical energy of those fuel
molecules in a form that the cell can use, namely the energy-rich molecule ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). The production of ATP in the mitochondria, using fuel molecules and molecular
oxygen (O2), is called cellular respiration
8. One class of organelles—the plastids—is present only in the cells of plants and certain protests.
Like mitochondria, plastids can divide autonomously and probably evolved from independent
prokaryotes. There are several types of plastids, with different functions.
9. Chloroplast contain the green pigment chlorophyll and are the sites of photosynthesis. In
photosynthesis, light energy is converted into the chemical energy of bonds between atoms.
The molecules formed by photosynthesis provide food for the photosynthetic organism and for
 other organisms that eat it. Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis is the energy source for most
of the living world.

There are several other organelles whose boundary membranes separate their specialized chemical
reactions and contents from the cytoplasm: peroxisomes, glyoxysomes, and vacuoles, including
contractile vacuoles.

10. Vacuoles occur in many eukaryotic cells but particularly those of plants, fungi, and protests.
Plant vacuoles have several functions: Storage, Structure, Reproduction, Digestion.
11. Cytoskeleton supports the cell and maintains its shape. It holds cell organelles and other
particles in position within the cell. It moves organelles and other particles around in the cell. It
is involved with movements of the cytoplasm, called cytoplasmic streaming. It interacts with
extracellular structures, helping anchor the cell in place.
 There are three components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. They have very different
functions.
1) microfilaments (smallest diameter),
2) intermediate filaments, and
3) microtubules (largest diameter).

E. Roles of Extracellular Structure

 The plant cell wall performs the same role as skeletal structures in animals. It is a semi rigid
structure outside the plasma membrane. Plant cell wall is consisting of cellulose fibers
embedded in other complex polysaccharides and proteins. Plant cell wall has three major
roles:
1) It provides support for the cell and plant by remaining rigid. Yet it is flexible enough
that it can allow the plant to bend in the wind, for example.
2) It acts as a barrier to infection by fungi and other organisms that can cause plant
diseases.
3) It contributes to plant form by growing as the plant cells expand.
 Animal cells lack the semi rigid wall that is characteristic of plant cells, but many animal cells
are surrounded by, or in contact with, an extracellular matrix. This matrix is composed of
three ttypes of molecules: fibrous proteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, third group of
proteins that matrix together.
 The functions of the extracellular matrix are many:
1) It holds cells together in tissues.
2) It contributes to the physical properties of cartilage, skin, and other tissues. For
example, the mineral component of bone is laid down on an organized extracellular
matrix.
3) It helps filter materials passing between different tissues. This is especially
important in the kidney.
4) It helps orient cell movements during embryonic development and during tissue
repair.
5) It plays a role in chemical signaling from one cell to another. Proteins connect the
cell’s plasma membrane to the extracellular matrix.

Cell Membranes
A. What is the structure of a biological membrane?
 The physical organization and functioning of all biological membranes depend on their
constituents: lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.
 The lipids establish the physical integrity of the membrane and create an effective barrier to
the rapid passage of hydrophilic materials such as water and ions.
 In addition, the phospholipid bilayer serves as a lipid “lake” in which a variety of proteins
“float”. This general design is known as the fluid mosaic model. It is mosaic because it is
made up of many discrete components, and fluid because they can move freely.

B. Cell Membrane Structure

 The lipids in biological membranes are usually phospholipids. A phospholipid molecule has
regions of both kinds:
1) Hydrophilic regions: The phosphorus-containing “head” of the phospholipid is
electrically charged and therefore associates with polar water molecules.
2) Hydrophobic regions: The long, nonpolar fatty acid “tails” of the phospholipid
associate with other nonpolar materials; they do not dissolve in water or associate
with hydrophilic substances.
 All biological membranes have a similar structure, but they differ in the kinds of proteins
and lipids they contain.
 Membranes from different cells or organelles may differ greatly in their lipid composition.
Some membranes have more protein than lipids, others are lipid-rich, others have
significant amounts of cholesterol or other sterols, and still others are rich in carbohydrates.

C. Lipids
 Up to 25 percent of the lipid content of an animal cell plasma membrane may be the steroid
cholesterol. Cholesterol preferentially associates with saturated fatty acids. When present,
cholesterol is important for membrane integrity; the cholesterol in your membranes is not
hazardous to your health.

D. Membrane Proteins
 All biological membranes contain proteins. There are two general types of membrane
proteins: peripheral proteins and integral proteins.
1) Peripheral membrane proteins lack exposed hydrophobic groups and are not
embedded in the bilayer. Instead, they have polar or charged regions that interact
with exposed parts of integral membrane proteins, or with the polar heads of
phospholipid molecules
2) Integral membrane proteins are at least partly embedded in the phospholipid
bilayer. Like phospholipids, these proteins have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions (domains)
 Hydrophilic domains: Stretches of amino acids with hydrophilic side chains give certain
regions of the protein a polar character. These hydrophilic domains interact with water and
stick out into the aqueous environment inside or outside the cell.
  Hydrophobic domains: Stretches of amino acids with hydrophobic side chains give other
regions of the protein a nonpolar character. These domains interact with the fatty acids in
the interior of the phospholipid bilayer, away from water.

E. Transmembrane proteins
 Proteins are asymmetrically distributed on the inner and outer surfaces of membranes.
 An integral protein that extends all the way through the phospholipid bilayer and protrudes
on both sides is known as a transmembrane protein.
 Peripheral membrane proteins are located on one side of the membrane or the other.
 This asymmetrical arrangement of membrane proteins gives the two surfaces of the
membrane different properties.
 Like lipids, some membrane proteins move around relatively freely within the phospholipid
bilayer.
 When two cells are fused, a single continuous membrane forms and surrounds both cells,
and some proteins from each cell distribute themselves uniformly around this membrane
 The cytoskeleton may have components just below the inner face of the membrane that are
attached to membrane proteins protruding into the cytoplasm. The stability of the
cytoskeletal components may thus restrict movement of attached membrane proteins.

F. Plasma Membrane Proteins

 The plasma membrane contains carbohydrates that may be covalently bonded to lipids or to
proteins:
 A glycolipid consists of a carbohydrate covalently bonded to a lipid. Extending out from the
cell surface, the carbohydrate may serve as a recognition signal for interactions between
cells. For example, the carbohydrates on some glycolipids change when cells become
cancerous. This change may allow white blood cells to target cancer cells for destruction.
 A glycoprotein consists of one or more short carbohydrate chains covalently bonded to a
protein. The bound carbohydrates are oligosaccharides. A proteoglycan is a more heavily
glycosylated protein: it has more carbohydrate molecules attached to it, and the
carbohydrate chains are often longer than they are in glycoproteins. The carbohydrates of
glycoproteins and proteoglycans often function in cell recognition and adhesion.

G. Recognition & Adhesion

 Often the cells of multicellular organisms exist in specialized groups with similar functions,
called tissues. Your body has about 60 trillion cells organized into various kinds of tissues—
such as muscle, nerve, and epithelium. Two processes allow cells to arrange themselves in
groups:
1) Cell recognition, in which one cell specifically binds to another cell of a certain type
2) Cell adhesion, in which the connection between the two cells is strengthened
 Cell junctions are a class of cellular structures consisting of multiprotein complexes that
provide contact or adhesion between neighboring cells or between a cell and the
extracellular matrix in animals. Three types of cell junctions are:
 1) Tight junctions prevent substances from moving through the spaces between cells.
For example, cells lining the bladder have tight junctions so urine cannot leak out
into the body cavity. Another important function of tight junctions is to maintain
distinct faces of a cell within a tissue by restricting the migration of membrane
proteins over the cell surface from one face to the other.
2) Desmosomes hold neighboring cells firmly together, acting like spot welds or rivets.
Materials can still move around in the extracellular matrix. This provides mechanical
stability for tissues such as skin that receive physical stress.
3) Gap Junctions are channels that run between membrane pores in adjacent cells,
allowing substances to pass between cells. In the heart, for example, gap junctions
allow the rapid spread of electric current (mediated by ions) so the heart muscle
cells beat in unison.

H. Membrane Transport
 Biological membranes allow some substances, but not others, to pass through them. This
characteristic of membranes is called selective permeability. Selective permeability allows
the membrane to determine what substances enter or leave a cell or organelle.
 There are two fundamentally different processes by which substances cross biological
membranes:
1) Passive Transport - do not require the input of chemical energy to drive them
2) Active Transport - require the input of chemical energy (metabolic energy).

I. Passive Membrane Transport

 Passive transport can involve either of two types of diffusion:
1) simple diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer, or
2) facilitated diffusion via channel proteins or carrier proteins.
 Diffusion is the process of random movement toward a state of equilibrium. A net movement
from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration.
 How fast a substance diffuses depends on three factors:
1) The diameter of the molecules or ions: smaller molecules diffuse faster
2) The temperature of the solution: higher temperatures lead to faster diffusion because
ions or molecules have more energy, and thus move more rapidly, at higher
temperatures.
3) The concentration gradient in the system—that is, the change in solute concentration
with distance in a given direction: the greater the concentration gradient, the more
rapidly a substance diffuses.
 Simple Diffusion small molecules pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane.
Simple diffusion takes place through the phospholipid bilayer. A molecule that is itself
hydrophobic, and is therefore soluble in lipids, enters the membrane readily and is able to pass
through it. The more lipid-soluble the molecule is, the more rapidly it diffuses through the
membrane bilayer.
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across membranes. Water molecules pass through specialized
channels in membranes by a diffusion process called osmosis. Needs no metabolic energy
Depends on the relative concentrations of the water molecules. In a particular solution, the
 higher the total solute concentration, the lower the concentration of water molecules. A
membrane may allow water but not solutes to pass across it, and in that case, water will diffuse
across the membrane toward the side with the higher solute (lower water) concentration
 Three terms are used to compare the solute concentrations of two solutions separated by a
membrane:
1) A hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration than the other solution with
which it is being compared
2) Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentrations
3) A hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration than the other solution with
which it is being compared
 Facilitated Diffusion the substances diffuse according to their concentration gradients, but their
diffusion is facilitated by protein channels or carriers. May be aided by channel proteins:
1) Channel proteins are integral membrane proteins that form channels across the
membrane through which certain substances can pass.
2) Carrier proteins bind substances and speed up their diffusion through the phospholipid
bilayer.
 ION Channels - the best-studied channel proteins
 Gated channel - opens when a stimulus causes a change in the three-dimensional shape of the
channel.

J. Active Membrane Transport
 Active Membrane Transport maintains the imbalance between the concentration of a particular
ion or small molecule inside compared with outside a cell because it is acting “against the
normal flow,” it requires the expenditure of energy. Often the energy source is adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). In eukaryotes, ATP is produced in the mitochondria.
 Active Transport is directional. It moves a substance either into or out of the cell or organelle,
depending on need. There are three kinds of membrane proteins that carry out active transport:
1) A uniporter moves a single substance in one direction.
2) A symporter moves two substances in the same direction.
3) An antiporter moves two substances in opposite directions, one into the cell (or
organelle) and the other out of the cell (or organelle)
 Symporters and antiporters are also known as coupled transporters because they move two
substances at once.
 There are two basic types of active transport:
1) Primary active transport involves the direct hydrolysis of ATP, which provides the
energy required for transport.
2) Secondary active transport does not use ATP directly. Instead, its energy is supplied by
an ion concentration gradient established by primary (ATP-driven) active transport.
Secondary active transport uses the energy of ATP indirectly in the form of the gradient.

K. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

 Endocytosis - macromolecules and particles enter the cell by endocytosis. Endocytosis is a
general term for a group of processes that bring small molecules, macromolecules, large
particles, and even small cells into the eukaryotic cell.
 Three Types of Endocytosis:
1) Phagocytosis
2) Pinocytosis
3) Receptor-mediated endocytosis
In all three, the plasma membrane invaginates (folds inward), forming a small pocket around
materials from the environment. The pocket deepens, forming a vesicle. This vesicle separates
from the plasma membrane and migrates with its contents to the cell’s interior.
 Phagocytosis
 cellular eating
 part of the plasma membrane engulfs large particles or even entire cells
 Unicellular protists use phagocytosis for feeding, and some white blood cells use
phagocytosis to defend the body by engulfing foreign cells and substances. The food
vacuole or phagosome that forms usually fuses with a lysosome, where its contents are
digested.
 Pinocytosis
 cell drinking
 vesicles also form, and are smaller
 the process operates to bring fluids and dissolved substances into the cell.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis - molecules at the cell surface recognize and trigger the uptake
of specific materials.
 Exocytosis moves materials out of the cell is the process by which materials packaged in vesicles
are secreted from a cell when the vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane.
 Ground Rules of Metabolism

A. Energy
 Chemical Reaction occurs when atoms have sufficient energy to combine or change their
bonding partners.
ex. the hydrolysis of the disaccharide sucrose to its component monomers, glucose and
fructose, we can express this reaction by a chemical equation:
Sucrose + H2O → glucose + fructose
(C12H22O11) (C6H12O6) (C6H12O6)
Reactants = sucrose and water
products = glucose and fructose
 Metabolism is the sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in a biological system at a
given time. Metabolic reactions involve energy changes; for example, the energy contained in
the chemical bonds of sucrose (reactants) is greater than the energy in the bonds of the two
products, glucose and fructose.

B. What is energy?
 Physicists define it as the capacity to do work, which occurs when a force operates on an object
over a distance.
 In biochemistry, it is more useful to consider energy as the capacity for change.
 In biochemical reactions, energy changes are usually associated with changes in the chemical
compositions and properties of molecules.
 Two basic types of ENERGY:
1) Potential Energy is the energy of state or position—that is, stored energy. It can be
stored in many forms: in chemical bonds, as a concentration gradient, or even as an
electric charge imbalance.
2) Kinetic Energy is the energy of movement—that is, the type of energy that does work,
that makes things change. For example, heat causes molecular motions and can even
break chemical bonds.

Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy and vice versa, and the form that the
energy takes can also be converted.

C. Metabolism
 There are two basic types of metabolism:
1) Anabolic reactions (collectively anabolism) link simple molecules to form more complex
molecules (for example, the synthesis of sucrose from glucose and fructose). Anabolic
reactions require an input of energy.
Energy is captured in the chemical bonds that are formed (for example, the glycosidic bond
between the two monosaccharides). This captured energy is stored in the chemical bonds as
potential energy.
2) Catabolic reactions (collectively catabolism) break down complex molecules into
simpler ones and release the energy stored in the chemical bonds. For example, when
sucrose is hydrolyzed, energy is released. In a biological system the released energy may
 be recaptured in new chemical bonds, or it may be used as kinetic energy—moving
atoms, molecules, cells, or the whole organism.
 Catabolic and anabolic reactions are often linked. The energy released in catabolic reactions is
often used to drive anabolic reactions—that is, to do biological work. For example, the energy
released by the breakdown of glucose (catabolism) is used to drive anabolic reactions such as
the synthesis of triglycerides. This is why you accumulate fat if you eat food in excess of your
energy requirements.

D. Role of ATP in Biological Energetics

 Cells rely on adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for the capture and transfer of the free energy they
require to do chemical work.
 ATP operates as a kind of “energy currency.” Just as it is more effective, efficient, and
convenient for you to trade money for a lunch than to trade your actual labor, it is useful for
cells to have a single currency for transferring energy between different reactions and cell
processes.
 The structure of ATP is similar to those of other nucleoside triphosphates, but two things about
ATP make it especially useful to cells.
 ATP releases a relatively large amount of energy when hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi.
 ATP can phosphorylate (donate a phosphate group to) many different molecules, which
gain some of the energy that was stored in the ATP.

E. ATP
 An ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base adenine bonded to ribose (a sugar), which is
attached to a sequence of three phosphate groups
 An active cell requires the production of millions of molecules of ATP per second to drive its
biochemical machinery. You are already familiar with some of the activities in the cell that
require energy from the hydrolysis of ATP:
1) Active transport across a membrane
2) Condensation reactions that use enzymes to form polymers
3) Modifications of cell signaling proteins by protein kinases
4) Motor proteins that move vesicles along microtubules

F. Enzymes
 Enzymes are protein catalysts that affect the rates of biological reactions by lowering the energy
barrier, supplying the activation energy (Ea) needed to initiate reactions.
 A substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site—the site of catalysis—forming an enzyme–
substrate (ES) complex. Enzymes are highly specific for their substrates
 How do Enzymes Work?
 At the active site, a substrate can be oriented correctly, chemically modified, or strained. As a
result, the substrate readily forms its transition state, and the reaction proceeds. Binding
substrate causes many enzymes to change shape, exposing their active site(s) and allowing
catalysis. The change in enzyme shape caused by substrate binding is known as induced fit.
Some enzymes require other substances, known as cofactors, to carry out catalysis. Prosthetic
groups are permanently bound to enzymes; coenzymes are not. A coenzyme can be considered
 a substrate, as it is changed by the reaction and then released from the enzyme. Substrate
concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
 How Are Enzyme Activities Regulated?
 Metabolism is organized into pathways in which the product of one reaction is a reactant for
the next reaction. Each reaction in the pathway is catalyzed by a different enzyme. Enzyme
activity is subject to regulation. Some inhibitors bind irreversibly to enzymes. Others bind
reversibly. An allosteric effector binds to a site other than the active site and stabilizes the
active or inactive form of an enzyme.
 How Are Enzyme Activities Regulated?
 The end product of a metabolic pathway may inhibit an enzyme that catalyzes the commitment
step of that pathway. Reversible phosphorylation is another important mechanism for
regulating enzyme activity. Enzymes are sensitive to their environments. Both pH and
temperature affect enzyme activity.