EASA Module 4 – Electronic Fundamentals

Semiconductors - Diodes
OBJECTIVE M4.1a: DIODES

The Student is able to:

• Describe the basic theory of semiconductors.
• Describe the characteristics properties, uses and application
of a diode.
• Describe the characteristics and uses of diodes connected in
series and in parallel.
• Describe the characteristics and uses of the following:
• Silicon controlled rectifiers (thyristors)
Light emitting diodes
Photo conductive diodes
Varistors
Rectifier diodes
• Recognise and draw the ATA100 symbols for diodes.
• Describe the testing of a diode.
Semiconductors - Diodes
 Semiconductors

The first breakthrough in semiconductors came

in 1897 when J.J. Thompson discovered the
electron.

In 1913, Niels Bohr evolved the basic theory of

atomic structure, and that theory has been
developed to our present concept of the nature
of matter
 How Semiconductors work

A chip, LED and a transistor are all made from

semiconductor material
 How Semiconductors work

• Semiconductors have a big impact on our Society

• Semiconductors are at the heart of MICROPROCESSORS

and TRANSISITORS

• Anything computerized or uses radio waves depends on

semiconductors

• Most Semiconductors are created from SILICON

 Semiconductors

• A DIODE is the simplest semiconductor device

• A diode can be created using semiconductors utilising a

method called “Doping”

• As discussed the most common material used for

semiconductors is silicon

• Silicon is a very common element – for example it is the

main element in sand and quartz. It sits below carbon and
above germanium in the periodic table
Semiconductors
 Semiconductors

• Carbon, Silicon and germanium have a unique property in

their electron structure

• Each has 4 electrons in its outer (valance) shell

• This allows them to form nice crystals. The 4 electrons form

perfect covalent bonds with 4 neighbouring atoms, creating a
lattice.
 Silicon Atom

Valance
Band

Valance
Electrons

14 Positive Protons
14 Negative Electrons
Simplified Silicon Atom

4
Silicon Lattice
Lattice Structure of Silicon
 Lattice Structure of Silicon

+4 +4 +4

4+1+1+1+1
= 8 Electrons shared Covalent
in each silicon atom Bond Valance
outer shell Electrons Electrons

+4 +4 +4

+4 +4 +4
 Lattice structure of Silicon
• As previously mentioned covalent bonds are formed creating a
lattice forming a crystal

• In carbon we know the crystalline form as diamond

 Lattice structure of Silicon (cont’d)
• In silicon, the crystalline form is silvery, metallic-looking

• Metals are good conductors of electricity because they have

‘free electrons’ that move easily between atoms

• Although silicon crystals look metallic, they are not a metal

• All the outer electrons in a silicon crystal are involved in

‘perfect’ covalent bonds, so they cannot move around

• A pure silicon crystal is almost an insulator – very little current

will flow though it. This can be changed by a process called
‘DOPING’
 Semiconductors – Doping Silicon
• The behaviour of silicon can be changed into a conductor by
‘doping’ it

• In doping a small amount of an ‘impurity’ is mixed into the

silicon crystal

• Two types of impurity can be mixed into the silicon:-

• N-Type

• P-Type
 N-Type Semiconductor
• If, to a crystal of intrinsic semiconductor material (e.g.
germanium Ge or silicon Si), we add a small amount of some
‘impurity’ element which has five valence electrons.

• These impurity atoms will displace a few of the original

semiconductor atoms in the crystal lattice.

• Suitable impurity elements commonly used are arsenic As,

phosphorus P, and antimony Sb.

• Four of the five valence electrons in the impurity atom take

their places in the covalent bond structure of the crystal.

• The fifth electron can be regarded as ‘free’ and is available as

a charge carrier.

• Electrons have a negative charge, hence the name N-type

 N-Type Semiconductor
• As the number of ‘free’ electrons is equal to the number of
‘fixed’ impurity ions, the material as a whole is electrically
neutral.

• Impurities which behave in this way are called donors

(because they ‘Donate’ Excess Electrons).

• The resulting semiconductor material is called an N-Type

Extrinsic Semiconductor.
 N-Type Semiconductor

+4 +4 +4
Free
Arsenic Atom Electrons
5 Valance
Electrons

+4 +5 +4

Positive
Ion

+4 +4 +4
 P-Type Semiconductor

• If a trivalent impurity (e.g. gallium Ga, indium In, or boron B) is

used to dope an intrinsic semiconductor, only three of the
covalent bonds can be occupied by electrons.

• The vacancy that exists in the fourth bond can be thought of

as a ‘Positive Hole’ which can ‘accept’ an electron – hence the
name acceptor.

• The resulting semiconductor is known as a P-Type Extrinsic

Semiconductor and the number of ‘free holes’ is
approximately equal to the number of acceptor atoms present.
 P-Type Semiconductor

+4 +4 +4

Indium Atom
3 Valance Free
Electrons Hole

+4 +3 +4

Negative
Ion

+4 +4 +4
 N-Type Semiconductor Majority Carriers

• When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity,

not only does the number of mobile electrons increase but the
number of holes decreases below that which was formerly
present in the intrinsic material.

• The latter is due to an increase in the rate of recombination of

holes and electrons caused by the presence of a much larger
number of electrons.

• Thus, in an N-Type extrinsic semiconductor, the charge carriers

which, cause conduction are predominantly electrons.

• For this reason, electrons are called majority carriers and holes
minority carriers in N-Type material.
 P-Type Semiconductor Majority Carriers

• A similar effect occurs in P-Type material but, in this case, the

number of holes greatly exceeds the number of free electrons
and conduction is predominantly by holes.

• Consequently, holes are called the majority carriers and

electrons the minority carriers in P-Type material.
 Conductivity

• It can be shown mathematically that the majority

carrier concentration in an extrinsic semiconductor is
approximately equal to the density of impurity atoms.

• In practice, this means that the conductivity of the

extrinsic material depends upon the amount of
impurity present (i.e. upon the degree of doping).

• This can be controlled during the manufacturer of a

specific device to suit the application for which that
device is intended.
 Conductivity

• The N-Type material has fixed positive ions and free

electrons.

• The number of free electrons depends upon the

doping, heavily doped materials being better
conductors than lightly doped materials.

• The P-Type material has fixed negative ions and free

holes.

• The number of free holes depends upon the doping.

 N-Type Semiconductor – Heavy Doping

Majority Carriers Electrons

Free
Electron Free
Electron

Fixed
Positive Ion Fixed
Positive Ion
 N-Type Semiconductor – Light Doping

Majority Carriers Electrons

Free
Electron Free
Electron

Fixed
Positive Ion

Fixed
Positive Ion
 P-Type Semiconductor – Heavy Doping

Majority Carriers Holes

Free Hole

Free Hole

Fixed
Negative Ion
Fixed
Negative Ion
 N-Type Semiconductor – Light Doping

Majority Carriers Holes

Free Hole

Free Hole

Fixed
Negative Ion
Fixed
Negative Ion
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
Electrons

Holes

Semiconductor
Material
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A crystal of pure semiconductor material with no other
atoms, is called an intrinsic semiconductor.

• conductivity is heavily dependent on temperature, and

electrons and holes are created in equal numbers. These
facts limit the usefulness of intrinsic semiconductor material.

• Figure shows current flow in an intrinsic semi-conductor. The

electrons (negative charge) are attracted to the positive
terminal of the battery, while the holes (positive charge) are
attracted to the negative.
Any Questions?
 The Hall Effect
• When experimenting in 1879 with current flowing in a strip of
metal, E.M. Hall discovered that some of the charge carriers
deflected to one of the faces of the metal when a strong
magnetic field was applied.

• This gave rise to an emf (Hall Effect) between opposite faces

of the conductor.

• The emf is only a few microvolts in the case of metal, but is

much larger in semiconductors.

• The hall effect is used to demonstrate that the majority

carriers in a piece of “N” type are electrons and in “P” type
they are holes.
 The Hall Effect

20V

+10V

+20V Semiconductor
0V

0V
P.D.

Current Flow

+10V
The Hall Effect
 The Hall Effect

20V

+20V +11V

0V

2V
P.D.

+9V
The Hall Effect
+11V

+9V
+9V

+11V
 The Hall Effect
Hall Effect Generator
Sensor Control Unit

Starter
Generator

Overload Protection
Current
Measuring Differential Fault
Hall Effect
Sensor Protection

To Current Measuring
Distribution
Current Limiting
Function
Any Questions?
 “P” Type & “N” Type Diffusion
• So far “N” type and P-Type materials have been considered
separately.

• However, most semiconductor devices contain regions where

P-type material is joined to N-type material at one or more
places.

• These places are called P-N junctions and the behaviour of

the devices depends upon the electrical behaviour of the
region around the junctions.

• Suppose the N-Type and P-Type materials previously

considered separately are brought together somehow to form
a junction.
 “P” Type & “N” Type Diffusion
• Before contact, both materials are electrically neutral.

• The condition is as follows:

1. In the N-Type material, we have a large number of free

electrons whose charge is balanced by a large number
of fixed positive donor ions (and a few free holes).

2. In the P-Type material, we have a large number of free

holes whose charge is balanced by a large number of
fixed negative acceptor ions (and a few free electrons).
 “P” Type & “N” Type Diffusion
Fixed Positive Fixed
Ions
N Type Negative Ions
P Type

Free Free
Electrons Holes
“P” Type & “N” Type Diffusion
Hole Electron
Diffusion Diffusion

Junction
 “P” Type & “N” Type Diffusion
Junction

Neutral Region Neutral Region

+ve -ve

Depletion Layer

+
+ve
Neutral N-type Region Neutral P-type Region
0
-ve
-
 Diode Construction
• If we want to use a P-N Junction as a diode, we have to have
some means of connecting it into a circuit.

• One of the many methods of doing this is to evaporate a thin

metal film onto those parts of the semiconductor to which we
wish to make contact.

• These films are called electrodes or Ohmic Contacts and form

attachment points for wires, which lead to the external
connection points (terminals).

• The terminal connected to the P-Type material is known as the

Anode.

• The terminal connected to the N-Type is known as the

Cathode.
 Diode Construction

Diode

Cathode Anode
(Negative) (Positive)

Germanium Diodes
 Junction Diode Reversed Biased
• With terminals connected to both the P and N semiconductor
material, we have our basic P-N Junction Diode.

• To control the Space Charge Region or Depletion Layer, we

apply a voltage across the terminals.

• If we connect a battery across the diode, positive to the N-

Type, negative to the P-Type, the free electrons in the N-Type
migrate towards the positive of the battery and the holes in the
P-Type move to the negative terminal.

• In this situation, we effectively increase the Space Charge

Region or Depletion Layer and increase the resistance to
current flow.

• This connection arrangement is known as Reverse Bias.

 Junction Diode Reversed Biased

No Current Flows

N Type

Depletion
Small
Layer
Voltage
Widens

P Type
 Junction Diode Reversed Biased

No Current Flows

N Type

Depletion
Large
Layer
Voltage
Even Wider

P Type
 Junction Diode Forward Biased

No Current Flows

N Type

Depletion Small
Layer Narrows Voltage

P Type
 Junction Diode Forward Biased

Current Flows

N Type

Depletion
Large
Layer
Voltage
Even Wider

P Type
Junction Diode Forward or Reversed Biased

Anode Cathode

Reversed Biased Forward Biased

No Current Flow Current Flows

 Diode Characteristics

• As previously discussed, a diode is said to be “Biased” when a

voltage is applied between the terminals such that the diode
operates as required.

• An external voltage applied so that the anode is positive and

the cathode negative is called “Forward Bias”.

• There are many ways of achieving this, for example:

• Connect the anode to +3V and the cathode to 0V.

• Connect the anode to +1v and the cathode to –1V.

• Connect the anode to –52V and the cathode to –53V.

 Diode Characteristics

• So far as the diode is connected, it is the voltage of the anode

with respect to the cathode, which determines the bias.

• If the voltage is applied so that the anode is negative with

respect to the cathode, the diode is said to be “Reverse
Biased”, again, there are many ways of achieving this.

• The forward voltage required to make the diode conduct

depends on the material it is made from. Germanium diodes
require a voltage of approximately 0.1 to 0.2 volts and silicon
diodes 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
 Silicon Diode Characteristics
Ma

200

Forward
150
Bias

100

Reverse Current starts Full current

Voltage 50 to flow starts to flow

Volts
-200v -150 -100 -50v 0.25v 0.5v 0.75v 1v
-0.02 Very small
Breakdown of reverse current
semiconductor
material -0.04

Reversed -0.06
Bias

-0.08

A
 Germanium Diode Characteristics
mA

200

Forward
150
Bias

100 Full current starts to

flow (smaller voltage
Reverse than Silicon Diode)
Voltage 50

Volts
-200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V
50
Breakdown of Current starts to flow
semiconductor material (smaller voltage than
occurs at a lower reverse Silicon Diode)
100
voltage than Silicon Diode

Reversed 150 Larger reverse

Bias current than a Silicon
Diode
200

A
Any Questions?
 Diodes in Series (Reverse Voltages)

• In a high voltage circuit, one diode may not be enough to

block the high reverse voltages that may occur.

• In such cases two (or more) similar diodes can be used to

meet the requirements.

• Two diodes, however, even from the same batch, will not
necessary have the same voltage & current characteristics.

• When in forward bias, both diodes carry the same current

and will have the same forward voltage drop.

• But when connected in reverse bias, the reverse voltages

across each individual diode could vary drastically dependant
on the characteristics of each diode.
 Diodes in Series (Reverse Voltages)

• In a high voltage circuit, one diode may not be enough to

block the high reverse voltages that may occur.

• In such cases two (or more) similar diodes can be used to

meet the requirements.

• Two diodes, however, even from the same batch, will not
necessary have the same voltage & current characteristics.

• When in forward bias, both diodes carry the same current

and will have the same forward voltage drop.

• But when connected in reverse bias, the reverse voltages

across each individual diode could vary drastically dependant
on the characteristics of each diode.
 Diodes in Series (Reverse Voltages)

Forward
Current
I
Reverse
Voltage Drop

-Vd1 -Vd2 Forward

-Vd1 Voltage
D1 V

Vsupply
Connected
In Reverse
Bias

D2
-Vd2
Reverse
Current
Reverse -Is
Bias
 Diodes in Series (Reverse Voltages)

Forward
Current
I
-Id1 -Ir1 Reverse
Voltage Drop
-Vd1 = -Vd2 Forward
-Vd1 Voltage
D1 R1
V
-Id1

Vsupply
Connected
In Reverse -Id2
Bias
D2 R2
-Vd2
Reverse
Current
-Id2 -Ir2 Reverse
-Is
Bias

Reverse
Bias
Current
 Diodes in Parallel (Reverse Voltages)

• Connecting diodes in parallel can increase the current carrying

capability in a circuit, as the current is divided in this
configuration.

• Parallel-connected diodes are commonly used in high power

applications where a single diode cannot accommodate the
high current generated.

• To ensure equal current sharing is achieved, resistors are

connected in series with the diodes.
Diodes in Parallel (Reverse Voltages)

-Id2 -Id1

-Vd
D1 D2

Vsupply
Connected
In Reverse
Bias

-Vr
R1 R2

-Ir1 -Ir2

Reverse
Bias
Current
-Is
Any Questions?
 Rectifier Diodes
• Rectifier diodes are designed to convert A.C. to D.C. and to be
able to achieve this effectively and efficiently, they must have:

1. Low resistance to current flow in the forward direction.

2. High resistance to current flow in the opposite (reverse)

direction.

• Because of the need for a very low reverse current and a high
breakdown voltage, almost all semiconductors rectifier diodes
are silicon junction types.

• They usually have a junction area that is large relative to their

size to assist in the dissipation of heat.

• An elementary rectifier circuit is where the diode is inserted in

series between the input and output
 Basic Rectifier Circuit

A.C. Input D.C. Output

+ +

0 0
Input Output
- -
 Basic Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

A.C. Input D.C. Output

+ +

0 0
Input Output
- -
 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

D1

V Secondary
V Primary D2

I Load R Load V Load

V Primary V Load
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit

D2

D1 V Load
V Primary V Secondary

D4

D3

I Load R Load V Load

V Primary
Half Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Circuit

D1

AC Input Reservoir DC Output

Voltage Capacitor C1 RLoad Voltage

Mean Dc
Level

Time
 Full Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Circuit

D1

Reservoir
Capacitor
AC Input DC Output
Voltage
C1 RLoad
Voltage

D2
 Silicon Rectifier Diodes

250mA @ 200V

1A @ 1000V

1000A @ 2500V

10A @ 400V
1A @ 1500V
 Selenium Rectifiers

Rectifying Insulating
Junction Varnish
Counter
Electrode
Selenium
Aluminium
Base
Hole for
Mounting Bolt

Terminal

Terminal

Wafers connected Typical Rectifier Stacks

to form a Rectifier Stack
 Silicon Rectifier

Anode
Lead

Hermetically
Sealed Cavity

Aluminium
Silicon
Wafer
Rectifying
Junction
Solder
Copper
Base

Threaded
mounting stud and
cathode terminal
Any Questions?
 The Zener Diode

• The operation of voltage reference diodes and regulator

diodes is very similar, in that both are normally designed to
operate under reverse bias conditions.

• These diodes are often referred to as “Zener” Diodes, other

names include “Breakdown” and “Avalanche” diodes.

• Zener Diodes are rated to their Zener (breakdown) voltage

and also their power rating (IV), they must have a low
temperature coefficients (0.001%C).

• They are all made of silicon, to satisfy the temperature

requirements.
 The Zener Diode

• Their construction is such that, relative to the normal P-N

junction diode, the reverse IV characteristics are normally
extended into the breakdown region.

• As a result, Zener diodes usually operate at higher values of

reverse voltage than that allowed in normal P-N diode
circuits.
The Zener Diode Symbols

Preferred Symbol

Alternative Symbols
 Zener Diode IV Characteristics
I

Reverse
Voltage

V
Breakdown Very Small
Region Reverse Current

Maximum Current by
Thermal Dissipation
Capabilities
 Voltage Stabilizer Circuit

V Input - Zener V
R=
I = 5ma Circuit I
+28v
V In Vr I

10% Up 30.8v 25.8v 5.6ma

R1 4600 10% Down 25.2v 20.2v 4.4ma

1.2ma Variation

V Input
28v 10%
Stabilized Output Variation
5v 1.2ma X 14 5v
Zener 14 = 16.8mv Stabilized
Diode
Output

0v 0v
 Voltage Regulator Circuit

VIN DC VOUT
Zener
 Full Wave Rectifier & Stabilizer Circuit

D2

D1
AC Input
Voltage
D4

D3 R1

C1

5v +5v
Zener Stabilised
DC Voltage
 Diode Markings

BZY88C
1N4003

4V7
Type Type Zener Breakdown
1N4003 BZY88C Voltage

P-N Junction Zener

Diode Diode
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• The SCR, or “Thyristor”, is a semi-conductor device made up
of both N and P materials.

• It has two stable states, “OFF” or “ON”, and is used as a

switching device.

• The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor

material, either NP NP or PN PN.

• There are three connecting electrodes, the anode, cathode

and gate.

• The outer N and P regions are connected to the Cathode and

Anode respectively while the central N and P region is
connected to the Gate.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Anode

Forward
Biased

Reversed
Biased

Gate
Forward Circuit Symbol
Biased

SCR is switched either by

increasing the supply voltage or
by applying a pulse to the gate
Cathode
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Operation

• In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the

junction between the two bases is reverse biased whilst the
junction between the base and the anode and the base and
the cathode are forward biased.

• For all practical purposes, current flow is blocked, although a

small leakage current will exist.

• The SCR is switched either by increasing the supply voltage to

a value known as the breakover voltage.

• Or by application of a current pulse to the gate.

• In this state both inner regions are saturated with carriers and
the junction between them is forward biased.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Operation

• In consequence, the potential difference across the SCR is

very low.

• Beyond the breakover point the current increases rapidly,

limited only by the resistance of the circuit.

• If the current should fall below a value termed the ‘holding

current’, the SCR reverts to the off or forward blocking
position.

• It should be noted that once the gate is pulsed it no longer

controls the current so that its supply can be removed without
affecting the operation of the SCR.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
30a

Increasing the SCR Gate Current will

Anode Current

20a decrease the Break-Over Voltage

10a

Gate Current of 40mA

SCR Breakover Gate Current of 10mA
Voltage = 100V SCR Breakover
Voltage = 360V
20ma

10ma

0 100 200 300 400

Anode Voltage
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit

S1

R1

SCR
DC
SUPPLY S2

L1
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit

S1

R1

SCR
DC
SUPPLY S2

L1
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit

S1

R1

SCR
DC
SUPPLY S2

L1
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Circuit

S1

R1

SCR
DC
SUPPLY S2

L1
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Operation

Supply

Load

Trigger
Pulse
A.C.
Supply

Trigger
Load
Current
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Operation

Supply

Variable
R

Trigger
A.C. Pulse
Supply Position Determined
By C/R Time
C

Load
Current
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier

Anode
Connector

Cathode
Connector

Gate
Connector
 TRIAC & DIAC Operations

• A TRIAC Is basically two SCRS That are joined in inverse

parallel.

• When it is triggered it will conduct current in either direction.

• The DIAC is a bidirectional trigger diode that will conduct

only after its breakdown voltage has been exceeded
momentarily.
 TRIAC & DIAC Characteristics
Current (I)

Forward Bias
Conduction Point

Threshold
Threshold Voltage
Current (mA)

Voltage (V)
Threshold
Voltage Threshold
Current (mA)

Reversed Bias
Conduction Point
TRIAC & DIAC Symbols

TRIAC Symbols

DIAC Symbols
 TRIAC Construction

Main
Terminal 2
MT2

Gate G

MT1 Main
Terminal 1

Triggering pulses are applied to the

gate and main terminal 1
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• LEDs are made from a semi- conductor material, which

emits light when current flows through the junction.

• The most common colour emitted is red but green and

yellow are available at a lower intensity.

• The voltage drop across a LED is around 2 volts.

• Above this voltage, the current passing through it increases

rapidly.

• For this reason a series resistor is used to limit the current to

around 10ma to prevent burnout of the junction.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

+
Free
BIAS Holes

P
Emitted
Electron & Hole
Light
Recombination’s

Free
Electrons
N
_ _
+ Anode Cathode
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED

Chip

Anode Cathode
 The Photodiode

• Structurally very similar to a normal PN junction diode, though

there may be mechanical differences brought about by then
necessity to maximise the area of the junction that can be
exposed to light.

• Photodiodes are used in reverse-biased mode, and the

leakage current will then depend on the amount of light falling
on the device.

• Photodiodes are useful for measurement purposes as the

leakage current is directly proportional to the light intensity
over a wide range.

• Silicon is generally used for photodiodes, so the peak

response to light is in the infra-red region.
 The Photodiode

Reverse Current

REVERSE CURRENT (µa)

800

600

400

200

2000 4000 6000

LUMENS/m2 (LUX)
 The Photo Resistor

• The action of a photo resistor is similar to that of the

photodiode.

• The material it is constructed with will remove electrons from

their parent atoms when light photons falls on it, thus creating
a free electron.

• This free electron will then become available as a current

carrier, thereby reducing the effective resistance of the
material.

• The energy required to free an electron is known as the

“Energy Gap” and is dependent on the type of material.
 The Photo Resistor

Ceramic
Window Substrate

Photoresistive
Material
Case

More electrons released

so resistance goes down Connecting
Pins
 The Photo Cell

• Photocells change light into electrical signals.

• There are two basic types:

1. Photo Resistive (conductive) cells.

2. Photovoltaic cells.

• Photovoltaic Cells

• When illuminated, a photovoltaic cell produces a voltage.

• If an external circuit is connected to the cell, current flows

through it.

• The source of energy is the light.

 The Photo Cell

• The voltage available depends on the material used, the

intensity of the light and the amount of current drawn from the
cell.

• For a silicon cell in full sunlight the voltage on open circuit is

0.45V.

• With a maximum current of 35mA for each square cm of cell.

• Only about 10% of the light is turned into electrical energy.

 The Photo Cell – Circuit Symbol

Photovoltaic Cell
Photo Resistive Cell
Circuit Symbol
Circuit Symbol
 The Varistor

• The Varistor is a semi-conductor device used for clipping

'noise spikes' off ac voltage.
• Noise spikes are of very short duration and large amplitude.
They may pass through a power supply and appear on a dc
regulated output voltage.
• Low pass filters are often ineffective against noise spikes so
the spikes are attenuated before rectification of ac to dc.
 The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)

• The MOV is a semi-conductor resistor made of zinc oxide

crystals.
• When voltage across it exceeds a certain voltage, in negative
or positive direction, the device conducts to clip off noise
spikes.
• Although the Varistor acts in a similar way to a Zener diode, it
is much faster in operation.
 The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)

Typical MOV
+I
Volt- Amps
Characteristics Positive
Breakdown

–200v
-V +200v
+V

Negative
Breakdown

-I Circuit
Symbols
 The Varactor Diode

• Varactor diodes provide a variable capacitance, which is

controlled by increasing or decreasing the voltage being
applied across them.

• Accordingly they are used in circuits including “Voltage

Controlled Oscillators” (VCOs) and filters.

• Sometimes these diodes are referred to as “Varicap” or “Vari-

cap” diodes.

• They operate on the principle that a reverse bias connected P-

N junction acts as a small variable capacitor.

• Altering the reverse bias voltage alters the capacitance of the

junction.
 The Varactor Diode

• Ordinary P-N junction diodes can be used in this way, but

specially manufactured devices can offer controlled and higher
levels of capacitance.

• The Varactor Diode employs a standard P-N junction.

• With the device connected in the reverse bias sense, a

depletion layer is formed and no current flows through it.

• The depletion layer can be considered as two plates of

different charges with the gap between them acting as a
dielectric.
 The Varactor Diode

Negative
Charged Plate Depletion Positive
Charged Plate
Layer

P-Type N-Type
Capacitance

Circuit Symbol
 The Varactor Diode

-6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0
Reverse
Voltage 220pF
(V)
200pF

180pF

160pF

140pF

120pF

100pF

80pF

60pF
40pF

20pF

Capacitance
(F)
 SEMICONDUCTORS

Shottky Diodes
• Constructed from a metal to semi-conductor contact.
• Improve switching speeds for application in logic circuits.
• The mobility of electrons is greater than holes, N-type doped
semiconductor is used.
• They are ‘majority carrier’ devices and so do not suffer from the
minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes –
therefore, they have a much faster ‘reverse recovery’ than P-N
junction diodes.
• Lower forward voltage drop and a much lower junction capacitance
than P-N junction diodes which assists their high-speed switching
ability
• More suited to high frequency applications.
 SEMICONDUCTORS

Shottky Diode Symbol

 SEMICONDUCTORS
Clamping Circuits
• Referred to as a DC restorer, is used to add a DC offset to an AC
signal.
• The circuit illustrating positive clamping action

Diode Clamping
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• The input enters the negative half-cycle, the diode is forward
biased.
• Allows the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input
signal (VMAX – 0.7V).
• Beyond the negative peak, the diode becomes reverse biased
because the charged capacitor holds the cathode of the diode at
VMAX – 0.7V.
• The capacitor is to retain a charge approximately equal to the
maximum (peak) value of the input voltage (VMAX-0.7V).
• Capacitor behaves as a battery in series with the input signal.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Positive half-cycle, the charged capacitor adds to the input
signal.
• Negative half-cycle, it merely subtracts from the charged
capacitor voltage.
• This ensures that the output is ‘bottom clamped’ to -0.7V.
• If the diode is turned around, the capacitor will cause a negative
DC offset to the input signal.
• This time the capacitor is initially charged up during the positive
half-cycle.
• This means that the capacitor charge will further decrease the
maximum negative voltage by VMAX -0.7V.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Clipping/Limiting Circuits
• Known as limiters, cut an output off at a specific level
• Diode Limiting of Positive Half-Cycle
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Diode Limiting of Negative Half-Cycle
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• The limiting level can also be adjusted by adding a bias voltage in
series with the diode.
• The forward voltage must be greater than the combination of
the applied fixed voltage (VBIAS) and the diode barrier voltage
(0.7V).
• Bias added to Diode Limit.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Opposite Bias added to Diode Limit.
 SEMICONDUCTORS

Voltage Doublers
• A voltage multiplier is a specialized rectifier circuit producing an
output which is theoretically an integer times the AC peak input,
for example, 2, 3, or 4 times the AC peak input.
• It is possible to get 200VDC from a 100 Vpeak AC source using a
doubler, 300VDC from a tripler and 400VDC from a quadrupler.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Voltage Doubler Circuit and Waveforms
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Voltage Tripler
• A voltage tripler is built from a combination of a doubler and a
half wave rectifier (C3, D3).
• The half-wave rectifier produces 5V at node 3.
• The doubler provides another 10V between nodes 2 and 3, for a
total of 15V at the output node 2 with respect to ground.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Voltage Tripler and Waveforms.
Testing Diodes
 Testing Diodes

Cathode
 Testing Diodes
Low Resistance

Fluke 23 Series Multimeter

03
0000.2 0
Off V

P V

300 Mv

N 
Range
Press

Auto Range
A A
V
10a

! 1000v
300 750v Com
Ma
Fused

Symbol Structure
 Testing Diodes

High Resistance

Fluke 23 Series Multimeter

1
0000.2
030
Off V

P V

300 Mv

N 
Range
Press

Auto Range
A A
V
10a

! 1000v
300 750v Com
Ma
Fused

Symbol Structure
Any Questions?