Bachelor of Science in

Civil Engineering
(Transportation Engineering Track)

CET-412:
TRANSPORTATION Professional Course 2
(Highway Engineering)

Dr. Emer T. Quezon, PhD, C.Eng.,

M.ASCE
CE Department, COEA, Cagayan State
University, Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City,
Philippines
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What is Highway Engineering?

 Highway engineering is a branch of Civil
Engineering that Involves:
 Planning
 Design
 Construction
 Operation, and
 Maintenance of
roads, bridges & tunnels.

 to ensure safe and effective

transportation of people and goods.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Brief History of Roads
 Early roads with hard surfaces were found in
Mesopotamia about 3,500 BC.
 Another stone surface roads were also found in the
Mediterranean island of Crete.
 Similarly, constructed road found in the Western
Hemisphere by Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of
Central South America.
What are the primary purpose of constructing road
system in early times?
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest, and for
defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between
neighboring towns and cities.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.2 Development & Early Types of

Pavement
 Oxford definition- Road is a “way” devoted to
public travel.
- During those times, it was useful to relate a
term “way” rather than road.
- it began as pathways.

 The 1st major transport development – use of dogs

 The 2nd major transport development - invention of
wheel
- Mesopotamia, the Assyrian birth place of
Civilization about 3,500 BC.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 After 3000 BC, a variety of vehicles began to

make practical use.
 The 3rd major transport development - invention
of 4-wheels.

 Pressure for CHANGE: It was estimated that by

1750, about 2000 cattles/day herd down the
London Market.

☼ The Needs for Good Roads & Good Road

Surface was reaching a crescendo. Fortunately,
“NECESSITY” had remained the MOTHER of
Inventions.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 In 17th Century, a number of talented people were

beginning to make Significant contributions:
 Early Types of Pavement:
1. Tresaguet pavement (Jerome Tresaguet: 1716-1796),
A French Engineer. Introduced new methods of
Construction & Maintenance of stone roads.
-Improved the crown, drainage, grade including stone
foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones. He
was accredited as the FATHER of modern road building.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. Telford pavement (Thomas Telford: 1757-1834),

Scottish Engineer.
 He was the President & Founder of Institute of Civil
Engineer.
 He introduced some improvements of Tresaguet
construction methods.
 Figure below indicated the foundation course.
Telford employed flat sub-grade, slight crown
using stones.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

3. Macadam pavement(John L. Mac Adam: 1755-

1836, Scottish), contemporary of Telford.

 In1858, Eli Blake invented 1st stone crusher, at same

period.
 Steam road roller invented in France (By: Aveling &
Porter, a 30 tons road roller)
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
 Modern Types of Pavements
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

l-3 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

The early Saxon Laws imposes 3 mandatory duties for
the people to perform, namely:

l. To repair the roads and bridges.

2. To repair the castles and the garrisons.
3. To aid repel invasions.

After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed

that:
1. The King's Highway is sacred. Anybody who
occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have
encroached on the King himself.

 Therefore, Roads are for public use.

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to:

1) Drain the road.
2) Any bordering hedges, and
3) Refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or
bushes.
All of these within the specified DISTANCE from the
CENTER of the road.

 It was made clear that the Government Concept

towards the:
1. Use of roads includes upholding the right of the
public to use them without interference.
2. Since, the road is intended for the benefit of the
people, for return, it becomes their duty to protect
and maintain the roadway.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-3 Highways in the Philippines

 In the early part of 1900, transportations in the country
dependent largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth
roads, and partially graveled roads.
 Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more
than a dream to most Filipinos.
 The American government initiated the development
of roadways in the Philippines.
 Macadam road type was introduced, and gained wide
acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones
and gravel.
 After the 2nd World War, the new Independent
Philippine Government continued Rehabilitation and
Construction of Roads and Bridges, through the
reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese
government & aid from US government.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

50 years later, major highways and expressways were

constructed through:
1. Financial assistance
2. Loans from foreign banks.
 Alongside with the industrialization program of the
government.
 vehicles of various types and sizes started flooding the
roadways.

 In early 1960 to early part of 1980 (Marcos regime) was

considered an Automobile age. Cars were no longer
regarded as luxury item, but a necessity in transporting
people and goods.
 Government new concept of development is to get the
farmers out of the mud. It was during this decade that
road construction becomes a matter of priority of the
government under the slogan: " This nation is on Wheels.”
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Key information about Philippines Number

of Registered Vehicles:
 Philippines Number of Registered Vehicles was
reported at 4,951,662 Unit nationwide in Dec 2021.

 This records an increase from the previous number of

4,523,076 Unit for Dec 2020.

 Philippines Number of Registered Vehicles data is

updated yearly, averaging 2,527,599 Unit from Dec
1981 to 2021, with 41 observations nationwide.

 The data reached an all-time high of 4,951,662 Unit

in 2021 (Despite of COVID-19 Pandemic), and a
record low of 819,040 Unit in 1981.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

WHOLE-OF-LIFE OF HIGHWAY
NETWORK
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Whole-of-life of highway network

Project Completion

Cost, Php. Billion

Operation &
Feasibility Maintenance
Study Stage
Stage
Construction
Stage

1 2

Planning & Design Life, n = years

Design ,
Programming
Stage
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What is Highway Planning?

 Highway planning involves the estimation of
current and future traffic volumes on a road
network.
 Highway planning is also a basic need for the
Highway development.
 Highway engineers strive to predict and
analyze all possible civil impacts of highway
systems.
 Some considerations are the adverse effects on
the environment, such as:
1. Noise pollution
2. Air pollution
3. Water pollution, and
4. other ecological impacts.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What are the Objectives of

Highway Planning?
 Planning a highway network for safe, efficient
and fast movement of people and goods.
 Keeping the overall cost of construction and
maintenance of the roads in the network to a
minimum.
 Planning for future development and
anticipated traffic needs for a specific design
period.
 Phasing road development programs from
considerations of utility and importance as also
of financial resource.
 Evolving a financing system compatible with the
cost and benefits.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-5 Planning Difficulties

 Development and maintenance of roads and
highways is a continuous process alongside with the
technological advancement.
 New equipment and management techniques
revolutionized the construction and maintenance
methods.
 Advance knowledge in the field of soils, pavement
materials, and designs were adopted for reliability
and economic considerations.
 ENGINEERS are conscious of the need for roadways to
be safe, useful, and attractive.
 This needs include improvement of the:
1. Roadside,
2. Erosion control, and
3. Noise abatement.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 ENGINEERS are aware of the fact that highways

are vital to the country's development.
 Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted
with problems categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political, and
3. Technical.

 POLITICIANS now control DPWH projects as their

source of political funds.
 Highway District Engineer's qualification is simply
subservience (servility) to the politician. "Do what
I say or get out of my district".
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 As a consequence, public confidence

tremendously eroded. Not only in the
government's ability to abate these problems, but
also in the proficiency of the technical men to
offer solutions.

 Planners are now operating in a world of rapid

change and uncertainty, in the political
atmosphere where decisions by magic, or
oracles, carry more weight than those based on
professional training, expertise and experiences.

 Indeed, our professionals more particularly the

technical men, seems to have lost confidence in
thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-6 Highway Programming

There are 3- inseparable sets of inputs involved in
highway programming:

1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial - The question of who pays, and who
spends, howl much, and where?
3. Political and Administration - This involves decision
making.

 In highway programming, projects are prioritized.

Those that are most economically viable were
selected, if they fit into the financial capability and of
course political criteria.
 Projects that failed on either financial or political
criteria are abandoned, modified for substitute.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Highway Programming Approaches

1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged
implementation by the agencies functions like
construction, operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire
and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical
situations, present and future expected level of traffic.
4. Providing continuity of route system, and coordination
with other transportation mode.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and
materials, including climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination
with other agencies, acquiring Road Right-of-Way, and
making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and
other natural disasters.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and

its Use
A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost.
b. Right of way appropriations.
c. Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs.
e. Operating costs.

2. Cost benefits to highway users:

a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion
cost).
b. Travel savings time expressed in cost.
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident).
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway user:

a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering and
deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, inconvenience
and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of pleasing
views and scenery from road.

2. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

a. Cost benefits to highway users - Traveling savings
time. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle
trip.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-7 The Planner

Their role is:
1. To provide technical and organizational support.
2. To receive input or information on the needs and
goals of affected persons group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making
decision.

The Functions of the Planners are:

1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and
the initial work program.
2. To explore alternatives. Data gathering by contacting
the representatives of other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis (with community involvement).
4. Coordination - Secure formal ratification from the
local officials.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

l-8 Community Involvement

Public hearing should involved the public from the start
of planning to give them a chance to participate in
the discussions and involved them to:

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials.

2. Non-government organizations, influential persons
and conservative group of the community.
3. Create special staff to carry out this function.
4. Community leadership opportunity to participate
continuously on the planning stage.
5. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct
group meeting, workshops, hearing and other
related activities.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-9 Highway Economy

 A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from
foreign financing institutions will not feel the great
impact of their infrastructure projects, If domestic
income through taxes alone will be depended on.

 Financing institution such as the World Bank insists that

projects to which they make grants or loans be
“justified” primarily on the economic basis.

 There are many designs and administrative decisions

that does not involve public policy, but these should
be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest
in the long run.

 The result from an economic study that is reasonably

interpreted must prevail.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

The intent of expenditures for highways and public

transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country's level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of
related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and
increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of
operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

So, what are the sources of Budget? Based on the principle

of "Pay as you go” (taxation).
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(2) Location of the Proposed Highway

 New highway locations are blended with curvature
grades and other roadway elements to offer;
comfortable easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries,
comply with the rules on safety standards.

 To improve the highways, there should be tentative

plan as to the control, and minimum design speed,
roadway cross-sections, and maximum slope with the
following considerations:

1. Reliable cost estimate.

2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Figure: Location of the Proposed Highway

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Location surveys in the Rural areas are

Divided into 4 Stages.
Under stage I: Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial
photographs of the area supplemented by available
maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and
maps.
Under stage II: Reconnaissance survey of feasible route:
1. Stereoscopic examination of largo-scale aerial
photographs of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography
and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric
methods.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on

photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.

Stage III: Preliminary Survey of the best route.

1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps by

ground survey guided by best route location made
on photographs in the second stage.

2. Design of the preliminary location.

Stage – IV: Location Survey

1. Staking of the Road
Right-of-Way (RROW),
and the highway and
structures for construction.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(3a) Location of Bridges

 Highways and Bridges have but one purpose - To
convey traffic. The location and position of a bridge is
subordinate to the general alignment and grade.
 The cost of a bridge and its full approach combined
before the crossing site should be determined.
 Bridge survey report should be accompanied with
accurate data on the waterway and the historical
behavior of the water.

 The bridge survey data

shall include the:
1. Foundation conditions.
2. Stream characteristics.
3. Adjacent structure on the
stream more particularly,
their waterway opening.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

When the location of the bridge is

approximately determined?

 The following requirements must be

considered:
1. A complete data report and special survey of the
site.
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of
the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation
condition and the stream characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures
particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Figure: Typical Example of Small Bridge Location Problem

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(3) Highway Plans and Specifications

 Plans and specifications are set of documents of
instructions and conditions under which highways and
bridges are built.
 The plan contains engineering drawings of the project,
whereas, the specifications is a written instructions and
conditions considered as integral part of the contract
between the contractor and DPWH classified as legal
documents.

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are

incorporated in the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage & Erosion control
3. Roadside development & Structure
4. Soils
5. Pavement
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

BRAINSTORMING

What are the Reasons Why

Highway Construction Project
Fails?
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1. What are the Reasons Why Construction

Projects Failed?

Contents of Discussions:

1. Possible Causes of Project Failures

2. Causes of Project Delay
a. Within the Control of Contractor
b. Beyond the Control of Contractor
3. Duties & Responsibilities of Project Manager/
Materials Engineer
4. Calibrated Sanctions for Erring Contractors
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

A Project Manager or a Project Engineer should

not only be fully equipped of procedures and
guidelines for effective management but he should
also be aware of the possible adverse effects
which contributes to project FAILURE ; such as:
1. Ineffective planning/preparation
2. Defective project design
3. Failure to anticipate obstacles
4. Wrong choice of project manager
5. Lack of support from top management
6. Funds do not come as promise
7. Inadequate staff support
8. Conflict between project and functional managers
9. Inadequate execution and supervision
10. Inexperience project engineers
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. What are the Factors that Causes

Delay of a Construction Projects?
A. “Within” the Control of Contractor
1. Unable to maintain continuity or momentum because
laborers are reassigned to different work locations.
2. Stockpile or storage are poorly organized & not
adjacent to work.
3. Sequencing/scheduling and control of the work are
poor.
4. Deliveries of construction materials are untimely.

B. “Beyond” the control of contractor

1. Bad or Unfavorable weather condition
2. Changes made by client/owner
3. Defective contract documents
4. Delayed payment of progress billings
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

A BRIEF REVIEW of CONTRACT

IMPLEMENTATION
GUIDE FOR INFRASTRUCTURE
PROJECTS (IRR of RA 9184)
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

I - VARIATION ORDERS :
Types:
1) CHANGE ORDER
2) EXTRA WORK ORDER
3) SUPPLEMENTAL AGREEMENT

This Variation Order is applied to suit actual field

conditions resulting in disparity between the difference
between the 3-Technical Terms:

1) Preconstruction plan is used for purposes of public

bidding.
2) Construction plan is prepared after a joint survey
within the construction progress of activities.
3) As-Built plan is prepared to indicate all actual
accomplishments just after completion of the project.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Variation Orders
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

SAMPLE VARIATION ORDER

Diff.
300K
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Brief Specific Conditions:
 Any cumulative Variation Order beyond 10% shall be
subject of another contract to be bid out if the works are
separable from the original contract.
 In exceptional cases where it is urgently necessary to
complete the original scope of work, variation order
beyond 10% but not more than 20% is allowed, subject
to the IRR or guidelines.
 In claiming for any Variation Order, the contractor shall,
within seven (7) calendar days after such work has been
commenced, and within twenty-eight (28) calendar
days will deliver a written communication giving full and
detailed particulars of any extra cost.
 Failure to provide either of such notices in the time
stipulated shall constitute a waiver by the contractor for
any claim.
 Administrative Action on
Contracts
with Negative Slippage in
Accordance with the Revised IRR
of R.A. 9184
(DPWH D.O 193 s2016)
BASED on PHYSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT
I) EARLY WARNING STAGE
TO CONTRACTOR
 5% Negative Slippage (based
on Cumulative Accomplishment)

II) ICU STAGE (FINAL WARNING WILL BE ISSUED)

 10% Negative Slippage (based on Cumulative
Accomplishment)

III) TERMINAL STAGE

 15% Negative Slippage or more (based on
Cumulative Accomplishment)
ANY QUESTIONS
PLEASE ??
 Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering
(Transportation Engineering Track)

CET-412:
TRANSPORTATION Professional Course 2
(Highway Engineering)

Dr. Emer T. Quezon, PhD, C.Eng.,

M.ASCE
CE Department, COEA, Cagayan State
University, Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City,
Philippines
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-l Consistency
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway
design. That is, by making “every element” of the
roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the DPWH/MMDA to provide them with:

l. Clear information and guidance through a variety of
road signs.
✓ to convey one single message at a time
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the
road standards.
✓ Satisfactory highway if directions followed smoothly
and easily without undue changes in SPEED.

❑ Hence, highway signs and directions should be

integrated as early as the preliminary layout studies.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-2 Definition of Terms
AASHTO is the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials. Its publications
included:
l. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric deign standards.
4. Numerous policy statements and guides.

Road -has somewhat broader application in usage

used to describe a public thoroughfare.

Highway-The term was first used in England to

describe a public road built by digging ditches on
both sides and heaping up the earth in the middle.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

Road Hierarchy
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Expressway is a divided arterial
highway for through traffic with full
or partial control or access ,and
generally provided with grade
separation at major intersections.

Freeway is an expressway with full

control of "access.“

Control of Access is a condition

where the rights of owners or
occupants of adjoining land or
other persons access to light, air
or view in connection with a
highway is fully or partially
controlled by public authority.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Full Control of Access - The
authority to control access is
exercised to give preference
to through traffic. Crossing at
grade or direct private
driveway connections is not
permitted.

Partial Control of Access –

Similar to full control access,
but there may be some
crossings at grade, and some
private driveway connections
allowed.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Arterial Road is an arterial route that carries traffic to the
nearest access point or through traffic.
✓ It often serves as the most advantageous routes for relatively
long distance travel. Cross traffic is regulated by signals or
stop signs.
✓ It is considered as a "make do" substitute for controlled
access facilities when traffic volume exceeds about 20,000
vehicles per day.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial
Roadways:
1. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin and destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least 1 lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least 1 kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate
them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at
about 600 to 900 meters apart.
10.Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum
volume to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles per average
hour during the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak
periods.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Peak hour traffic volume on designated Arterial
Road exceeds the capacity of 2-way streets, and
to increase the arterial capacity, the following
solutions are enforced:

l. During peak hours, parking is prohibited

on 1 or both sides of the street.

2. Parking is prohibited several meters

away from each side of the road
intersections or corners.

3. Right turn is allowed on red signals

anytime with care.

4. Left turns are eliminated on congested

intersections.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattern where
passengers are pick up from service streets and carried to the
arterials.

Local Road is defined as street or road primarily for access to

residence, business, or other adjoining properties.

Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum number of

vehicles that are reasonably expected to pass a given point
over a given period of time (veh/hr).

1. Under ideal conditions, 1 freeway lane can accommodate

about 2,000 passenger cars per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per
hour in each direction.

There is an obvious relationship between vehicle speed and

highway capacity. As the volume of traffic approaches
capacity, the average speed is markedly reduced.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as
measured by the number of vehicles passing a partial
station during a given interval of time. It is called 'Average
Annual Daily Traffic" if the period is less than 1 year.

Some highway agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes

interval to distinguish short peak movements of vehicles.

2-3 The Design Speed

-The speed determined for design and correlation of the

physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles
operation.

It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a

specified section of the highway when weather and traffic
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super
elevation of curves, the sight distance, and grade. The design
speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed.
AASHTO recommend that:
-"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to
satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers throughout the road
anticipated life.“

For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road

sections are designed for speed from 30 to 50 kilometers per
hour. And yet, some motorists drive fast.

Under this situations, to alert motorists, highway design

adopted control by reducing the super elevation combined
with:
1. Easement curves
2. Delineators
3. Stripping signs
4. Rumble strips.
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

2-4 Cross Section of Typical Highway

The cross section of a typical highway has
latitude(freedom) of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the
driver.

❑ Highway design usually adopted cross-section

that is uniform in thickness from end to end of the
improvement.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
✓ Cross section design generally offers the expected level
of service for safety and a recent study showed that:

✓ A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less accident

compared with pavement narrower than 5.50 m. wide.

✓ A 7.2 meters wide pavement has 4%o fewer accidents

than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.

✓ Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60

meters and the 7.20 meters wide pavement.

✓ For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m and 7.20 meters wide pavement
with 2.70 to 3.00 m wide shoulder, recorded accident
decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide
shoulder. And 20%o compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters
wide shoulder.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
✓ Although there are strong demand to increase it further
from 3.60 to 4.20 meters.

✓ For Two Lane Rural Highways: a 7.20 meters wide surface

is required for safe clearance between commercial
vehicles and is recommended for main highways.

✓ For Collector Roadway: 6.00 meters wide surface is

acceptable only for low volume traffic including few
trucks traveling thereon.

✓ For Local Rural Roadway: the minimum surface width is

4.80 meters for a 30 km / hr. design speed.

✓ For Urban Roadway: the minimum design width is 3.60

meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is
limited. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes to avoid
collision.
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-5 Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the
roadway between the edge of the traffic lane, and the edge of
the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires Quality
pavement materials.

Importance of Road Shoulder:

1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when
disabled or for some other purposes. Road shoulder
considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity
increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the
roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road
pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It
reduces accident potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Policy on Geometric Design Recommended
that:
1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or
3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more than 250 in the
design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is
1.20 to 2.40 meters with at least 1.20 meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should
be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if truck volume in
the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder
width is fixed at 1.20 meters minimum, although 2.40
meters wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the
usable minimum shoulder width is 2.40 meters although
3.60 meters is recommended.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is
suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on 4 lanes divided arterials
is fixed at 90 centimeters as minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is
recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide
graded shoulder is required for ADT's less than 400.
10. For ADT's over 2000. 2.40 meters wide shoulder is
recommended.
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

For more
details,
read pp 39
& 40
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-6 The Cross Slope
The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the
roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the
centerline of the 2 lane highway except where super
elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-7 Cut or Fill Slope
Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of I:2 ratios.

✓ Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earth fill

remain in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope.
✓ On the other hand, rock cuts could be as steep as l:2 and
sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable.
✓ Recently, slopes had been generally lowered for safer
operations and to facilitate plant growth. Plants reduced
erosion and decreases maintenance costs.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
1. The 6:l slope ratio could be adopted on embankment less
than 1.20 meters high, and 4:l ratio on a higher fill.

2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to height greater than 6.00 m. Cut

slope should not be steeper than 2:l ratio except on solid
rock or special kind of soil.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-8 Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is
determined from the estimated traffic volume for the
design year (AADT), and highway lane capacity at
expected level of service.

AASHTO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes

roadway with:
✓ Four (4) lanes in each direction for an inner freeway
✓ Four (4) more lanes in each direction on the outside.

There are some instances where a reversible lane is

located at the center of freeways with unbalanced
heavy traffic flow.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-9 Highway Median
Advantages of Providing Median:

1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight

glares, conflicts, and accident between opposing
streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic
stream of cross traffic, and pedestrian could
traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left tum lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe
operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is
highly recommended. For rural sections of freeway,
18 to 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that 3.00
to 9.00 meters median width is appropriate in
sub-urban or mountainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters
median or wider is preferred because it allows
the use of independent profiles, and at the same
time minimizes cross over accident.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to
cross each roadway separately. A 4.20 to 6.60
meters median width provides protection for
turning vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width
serves as partition - separation of opposite traffic
control devices.

Note: Read more from the reference material.

Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
2-10 The Grade Line HIGHWAY
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the
highway as a measure how the centerline of the
highway rises and fall.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
2-12 Right-of-Way HIGHWAY

Acquisition of land for the right-of-way is very

expensive. Based on experience from the past, highway
agency now consider it a good practice to acquire right
of way wide enough to sufficiently provide for the
ultimate expected development.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-13 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest
distance that a driver could see the top of an object 15
centimeters (6") above the road surface where the
design height of the driver's eye above the pavement is
105 centimeters.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is
seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver
applies brakes for the vehicle to stop.

The distance covered could be expressed by the

following formula:

Where:
t = Detection, recognition, decision
and response initiation ( brake reaction
time )
gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters
per second squared
f = Coefficient of friction between the tire
and pavement.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

The formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If

the car is traveling uphill, the braking distance is
decreased, and for downhill, braking distance is
increased. The braking distance on slope is expressed
by the following formula:

Where:
g = Longitudinal slope of the roadway or % Grade / 100

Uphill grade is positive ( + )

Downhill grade is negative ( - )
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

Activity 02, Oct. 17, 2023

1. Derive the Braking Distance Formula, d
2. A driver of a vehicle applied the brakes and
barely avoided collision an object on the road.
The vehicle left skid marks of 27 meters.
Assuming that f=0.60 coefficient of friction bet.
Tyre & pavement), determine whether the
driver was in violation of 65KPH speed limit on
that location if he was travelling:

a) Uphill on 3% incline
b) Downhill on a 2.3 degree incline
c) On a level highway
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-14 Road Alignment

➢ Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt

change from flat to sharp curve, and long tangents
followed by sharp curve should be avoided
because it will only create hazard and invite
accident.

➢ To have a short tangent between two curves is also

a poor practice. A long flat curve is acceptable at
all times. It is pleasing to look at, with less
probability of future accidents.

➢ Alignment should be provided with tangent

because there are drivers who hesitate to pass on
curves.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-15 Circular Curves
➢ Vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to
centrifugal force.
➢ This force is balanced by equal and opposite forces
developed through the super elevation and side
frictions.

Formula: D = 5.729.58/R

R = 5.129.58/D

Where:
D = degree of curve and the radius
R=Radius of curve
Degree of curve (SI) : 0.328 D
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

Solution using the above formula will give

following results:
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was

0.12, but now it is 0.10 except on low volume gravel
roads.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
The Policy on Geometric Design recommend that :
1. For design speed of 50 KPH, the normal cross slope is
l%- 2%' or even flatter curves.
2. For a 120 KPH design speed road, the normal cross
slope is 0%- 1.5% or flatter curves without super
elevation.

ln each of this solution, the total side friction is less than

0.04 for an adverse cross slope of 0.02.

2-17 Super Elevation -Runoff

Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated.

The centerline of each individual roadway at profile
grade is maintained while raising the outer edge, and
lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super
elevation.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
It is done by raising-up the outside edge of the
pavement with relation to the centerline until the outer
half of the cross section is flat. Then, the outer edge is
raised until the cross section is straight. Finally, the entire
cross section is rotated as a whole until full super
elevation is reached.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

AASHTO recommended the run-off length to vary both

with the super elevation rate and the design speed but
with minimum set for appearance and comfort to
riders.
To be continued…
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY (Part 3)

2-19 Island
❑ An island is a defined area between traffic
lanes for control of vehicle movement and for
pedestrian refuge.

❑ Withinan intersection, median is considered

an island. This definition makes evident that
an island is NO single physical type.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Island is included in the design of
intersections for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. Separation of conflicts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
4. Reduction of traffic, and indications of
proper use of intersections.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent
turning movement.
6. Location of traffic control devices.
 Road Islands

Median Refuge Islands

Roundabout-Traffic Island
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
❑ By channelization:
➢ the angle or route between intersecting streams of
traffic can be smooth and favorable.
➢ Drivers are commanded to merge into moving traffic
stream at flat angle, and right speed being controlled
over vehicles approaching an intersection.
➢ When cross traffic meets at flat angle, head on
collision could be more serious. A right angle at 75'to
105" is most favorable.
➢ Giving the driver opportunity to assess or calculate the
position and speed of oncoming vehicles.
❑ By channelization, funneling is also effective in
preventing overtaking and passing in conflict areas.
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

❑A well studied super-elevation is an important

adjunct to channelization that regulates the
vehicle speed; and:

1. Prohibited turns are prevented.

2. By channelization, refuge may be provided for
turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrians.
3. The drivers has to face only one decision at a
time, hence, conflicts can be avoided.
4. It provides location for the traffic control devices
like signs, signals and refuge for pedestrians.
Chapter II
Channelization
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-20 Types of Interchange
❑ The functions of freeway interchanges are:
1. To provide separation between two or more
traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one
entry to the other or between local roadway and
the freeway.
❑ The simplest and low cost form of interchange is
the diamond type.
❑ It is recommended where the freeway crosses
non-freeway arterial.
❑ The cloverleaf type interchange is recommended
for freeway, and arterial intersections. Intersecting
arteries are separated and free of intersections.
Difference Between Intersection and Interchange
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Objections to the Cloverleaf
Interchange Design
1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just
to traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270 degrees and
travel greater distance.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant
weave those entering the adjacent loop from the
through roadway.
❑ Alternative cloverleaf design with collector
distributor road is recommended for one or two
through street if the cost of added land paving and
structures can be justified.
NLEX-Mindanao Ave.
Five Levels Interchange
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
7-21 Highway Intersection at Grade
All highways except freeways have intersections at grade
intersection area is considered part of every connecting
roads.
1. For right angle intersections with light traffic, use of
street sign is more than sufficient.
2. For Y-intersection or other related conformation where
vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require
channelization.
3. The flared design will involve the following:
➢ Widening the entering traffic lane to allow deceleration
of the car, and clear of through traffic.
➢ Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleration and
merging from the traffic streams.

4. Intersections must accommodate large trucks, and the

radius of all curves must be sufficient enough to
accommodate them.
Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY

Read more on pp 73-75

Road Intersection
 T-Leg Intersection
Sight Distance

Hazardous Turning Movement

 Chapter II: DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
2-22 Freeway Entrance and Exit
❑ The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway
systems is governed by the flow characteristics of
vehicles, and the driver's behavior near on and
off the channel.
Freeway Entrance and Exit
Freeway Entrance
ANY QUESTIONS
PLEASE ??
 Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering
(Transportation Engineering Track)

CET-412:
TRANSPORTATION Professional Course 2
(Highway Engineering)

Dr. Emer T. Quezon, PhD, C.Eng.,

M.ASCE
CE Department, COEA, Cagayan State
University, Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City,
Philippines
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Chapter III-Part 1: Highway Drainage

What is Highway Drainage?

❑ is a means of collecting, transporting and disposing of
surface water originating in or near the Road Right-Of-
Way (RROW), or flowing in stream crossings or bordering
the RROW.
❑ Approx. about 25% roadway funds – spent for:
1. Culverts
2. Bridges
3. Other drainage structures
❑ Bigger appropriations are allotted for ditches, dikes,
channels and erosion control structures on Rural Roads
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Effects of Roads on watershed

The Roads produce stress on watersheds by:
✓ dramatically impacting the movement
of water and sediment across the landscape
✓ altering the drainage paths
✓ concentrating overland flow in
roadside ditches.

Its Impact
Road proximity has a negative impact on stream
geomorphic health(Landforms). This is especially
true with respect to roads located within the
Riparian corridor (Bank of River or Stream).
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Road Orientation
❑ Road orientation plays a vital role in determining
the stream geomorphic health. Parallel and
perpendicular roads present a multiple
opportunities for redirecting runoff into streams.
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Drainage Density Increases with
Hydrologically-Connected Roads
Roads (including compacted, unpaved) and other
impervious surfaces act like streams.

Abrupt Flow rate and

increase
volume increase
with
Drainage with Drainage
Facilities
Density

Fig. Comparison on with and without

Drainage Facilities on Roads
Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
 Hydrologic
Connectivity
via Ditches &
Culverts
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Road-side ditches absorb

more water than culverts

Open Ditch Enclosed Ditch

 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Cross Drainage Culverts
❑ Provide cross drainage of inside
ditches
❑ Installation
➢ Install in low points and small cross drains
➢ Place at downhill angle
➢ Seat firmly
➢ Inlet at same grade as ditch
➢ Protect outlet from erosion with rip-rap, etc.
➢ Size to handle flow
➢ Extend well beyond road fill
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Stream Crossings
❑ Peak runoff – flow in cubic
feet per second from
drainage area for a
designated level of storm
event.
❑ Head – vertical column of
water temporarily stacked
over culvert’s entrance.
Provides energy to force
water through pipe.
❑ Spillway – flat bottom
channel across road to
downstream side. It handles
peak flows exceeding
culvert’s capacity without
washing out pipe.
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Drainage system
➢ DRAINAGE is VERY! VERY! VERY! IMPORTANT, both in
relation to road pavement construction and
maintenance.
➢ Good drainage will help to keep the water table
and strength of the road pavement in equilibrium.
➢ Water below the road pavement must be kept low
and not be allowed to rise up into the constructed
layers.
➢ The road pavement must be constructed so that it
will drain, in the event of a failure of the integrity of
the surfacing layers (i.e. if water is able to enter the
road pavement there must be a path for it to exit).
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Importance of surface
drainage
❑ To avoid softening the road surface when
it is constructed of soil or sand-clay or
gravel or water bound macadam
❑ To avoid washing out unprotected areas
of the top surface, erosion of side slopes
forming gullies, erosion of side drain
❑ To avoid softening of the sub-grade soil
and decreasing its bearing power
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Drainage systems
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
In road assessment, information on drainage is important to
document because of the long-term effects by moisture on
pavement to undertake remedial measures.
NO
CONDITION
Defects

GOOD

V
T

E
S
I
FAIR
POOR

Rain falling on pavement should be efficiently directed to

drains and catch basins.
Poor drainage can damage the asphalt or concrete,
weaken the sub-grade, etc.
 Components of Highway
Drainage

Typical Cross Section

➢ Bench and Berm drain - lined channel that conveys surface
waters from slopes to a safe disposal point
➢ Interceptor drain -is a drainage system that is installed to
collect, channel and remove surface and subsurface water
within permeable soil
 Components of Highway
Drainage

Typical Cross Section

✓Shoulder drain – rainwater drain away from the

traveled roadway( 2-6% slope)
✓Toe drain - to collect water seepage
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Drainage:
Drainage of highway is important because water damage
highway structure in many ways. The water which are
dangerous for highways are:

1. Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep

downward and damage pavement (surface drains)
2. Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage
pavement (sub-surface damage)
3. Water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may
damage road (cross drainage)
Pavement and shoulder
The highway engineer should ensure that:

1. The precipitation is removed from the

pavement as soon as possible
2. The highway drainage is done efficiently.

➢ Water that falls on the roadway follows laterally or obliquely

from it, under the influence of cross slope or super-elevation
in pavement and shoulder.
➢ A suitable value of cross fall for paved roads is about 3% for
carriageway with a slope of 4-6% for shoulders(gravel).
Drainage with pavement layers:

➢ Pavement layers is an
essential element of
structural design because
the strength of the
subgrade(CBR) used for
design purposes. This
depends on the moisture
content during the most
likely adverse conditions.
➢ It is evident that benefits are
derived from applying
steeper cross falls to layers
at successive depths in the
pavement.
1. CULVERTS:

➢ Encompasses practically all closed conduits

employed for highway drainage with the
exception of storm drains (covered pipes in
urban area):

(a) A drain sewer or water covers totally

enclosed and usually of a size through
which a man can pass.
(b) An opening through on embankment for
the conveyance of water by means of pipe or
an enclosed channel.
 2. Bridges:

Bridges are used in

runoff drainage systems
where stream span is
large, for which special
designs are made
almost in every case >
6m.
Common culvert types
are:
1. Pipe culvert
2. Arch pipe culvert
3. Box culvert
4. Bridge culvert
5. Arch culvert
 Rational Method or Formula
• When stream flow records are not available,
peak discharge can be estimated by the
"rational" method or formula and is
recommended for use on channels draining
less than 80 hectares (200 acres):
 (In S.I units the formula is expressed as:
• Q = 0.278 C i A
where: Q = peak discharge, (m3/s)
i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr) for a critical time
period
A = drainage area (km²).

(In English units the formula is expressed as:

•Q=CiA
where: Q = peak discharge (ft3/s)
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr) for a critical time period, tc
A = drainage area (km²).
Table 26. Values of relative imperviousness for use in
rational formula. (American Iron and Steel Institute,
1971).
Type of Surface Factor C
1. Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05-0.10
2. Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10-0.15
3. Sandy soil, steep, 7 0.15-0.20
4. Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13-0.22
5. Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22
6. Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25-0.35
7. Asphaltic pavements 0.80-0.95
8. Concrete pavements 0.70-0.95
9. Gravel or macadam pavements 0.35-0.70
Manning's formula is perhaps the most widely used empirical
equation for estimating discharge since it relies solely on
channel characteristics that are easily measured.

Manning's formula is:

Q = 1/n(A*R2/3 *S1/2)
where: Q = discharge (m3/s)
A = cross sectional area of the stream (m²)
R = hydraulic radius (m), (area/wetted perimeter of the
channel)
S = slope of the water surface
n = roughness coefficient of the channel.
 Values for Manning's roughness coefficient (n) are
presented in table
Natural stream channels n
1. FAIRLY REGULAR SECTION:
• Some grass and weeds, little or no brush 0.030 - 0.035
• Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow materially greater than weed
0.035 - 0.050
height
• Some weeds, light brush on banks 0.050 - 0.070
• Some weeds, heavy brush on banks 0.060 - 0.080
• Some weeds, dense willows on banks 0.010 - 0.020
• For trees within channel, with branches submerged at high stage, increase
0.010 - 0.020
above values by
2. IRREGULAR SECTIONS, WITH POOLS, SLIGHT CHANNEL MEANDER;
0.010 - 0.020
INCREASE VALUES GIVEN ABOVE.
3. MOUNTAIN STREAMS, NO VEGETATION IN CHANNEL, BANKS USUALLY
STEEP, TREES AND BRUSH ALONG BANKS SUBMERGED AT HIGH STAGE:
• Bottom of gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.040 - 0.050
• Bottom of cobbles with large boulders 0.050 - 0.070
 An example illustrating the use of Manning's equation
to calculate peak discharge is as follows:

❑ EXAMPLE: A trapezoidal channel of straight alignment and

uniform cross section has a bottom width of 10 meters, side
slopes 1:1, channel slope 0.003, and high water depth (25-
year event) of 5 meters. The channel has weeds and heavy
brush along its banks.

Given: B (Bottom width) =10m

Side slopes = 1:1
Channel Slope, S = 0.003
H(high water depth) = 5 m @ 25 yr. event

Required: Discharge, Q
Solution:
1. Compute wetted perimeter H=5m
P= 10 + 2(5 / cos 45°) = 24.1m
B=10m
2. Compute cross sectional area
A = 1/2 x sum of parallel sides x perpendicular height
= 0.5(10 + 20)(5) = 75m²
3. Compute hydraulic radius
R = cross-sectional area / wetted perimeter
= 75/24.1
= 3.1m
4. Manning's n from Table 27: n = 0.06
5. Compute Discharge, Q =1/n(A*R2/3 *S1/2)
From Manning's equation
Q = =1/n(A*R2/3 *S1/2)
Q = 146 cu.m/sec

(For Velocity, if needed, can be computed by V= Q / A = 1.9 m/sec.)

Observations and
Recommendations
 SPECS:
Depth =
d 0.60m(Min.)
 Culvert placed too
low, plugs easily,
hard to clean out

Culvert placed too

high, creates pond
on uphill side,
washes out more
easily
Proper Alignment/Location of
Culverts
 Chapter III-Part 2: Cut Slopes and
Fill Slopes On Road

Cut Slope

“Natural” Slope

Fill Slope

Retaining Wall
 half of road blocked

half of road blocked

 berms

Landslide in man made Cut Slope

berms

Steep scar to
rotational failure
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Project Implementation
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Pilot Project of DPWH:

Project Engineer: E.T.
Quezon (2010-2011)
Along Primary National
Road, connecting Manila
& Cagayan Valley Region,
Philippines
Using coco-net
 Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION

Using coco-net
Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
 Inspection of Landslide
Area
Km. 446
(Road Towards Gambela, Ethiopia,
East Africa)
Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
Chapter III: DRAINAGE &
SLOPE PROTECTION
ANY QUESTIONS
PLEASE ??