REAL NUMBERS. (Complex nuribers: a+ bi where i= Vo [Real number “Rational and inational numbars Rational numbers: Integers: ey Natural numbers: 12.24 5,0 Figae A. Figue A2 ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS APPENDIX Real Numbers, Intervals, | and Inequalities Figure A.1 deseribes the various categories of numbers that we will encounter in this text ‘The simplest numbers are the natural numbers 13,34, 5, ‘These area subset of the iutegers 3, 4 uubset of the rational numbers, which are the numbers formed by taking ratios of integers (avoiding division by 0). Some examples are fob BaP, 019= i “The early Greeks believed that every measurable quantity had io be & rational number, However, this idea was overturned in the fifth century 8. by Hippasus of Metaponrurn” who demonstrated the existence of irrational numbers, that is, numbers dia cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers. Using geometric methods, he showed that te length othe hypotenuse ofthe triangle in Figure A.? could not be expressed asa ratio of integers, thereby proving that V3 isan rational number: Some other examples ofirational mimbers, awe VB V5, 1402, VI cos 19! ‘Therational and irrational numbers together comprise what is called the real mumber system, and both the rational und irrational numbers are called real numbers. Because the square of a real number cannot be negative, the equation =-1 has no solutions in the real number system. In the eighteenth century mathematicians reme- lied this problem by inventing a new number, which they denoted by and which they defined to have the property # = —1. This, in wn, led to the development * HloPASUS OF METAFONTUM (cine 500). A Greek Pythagorean philosopher. Acconingo legend, Hippasts mae his ise ry at se and was hewn overboard by fanatic Pythagorean hoeause his esol contacted thir Goctine, The discosery of Hippasus is eof di mos fundamental nthe entire history of scienceAd Appendix A: Real Numbers, intervals, and inequaities INTERVALS The open interal a,b) The closed inter a, 6) Figure A that a is not a member of the set A we will write @ ¢ A (read “a does not belong (0 A”). For example, if A is the set of positive integers, then 5 € A, but —5 ¢ A. Sometimes sets arise that have no members (e.g, the set of odd integers that are divisible by 2). A set with hho members is called an empty set or a mull set and is denoted by the symbol ‘Some sets can be described by listing their members between braces. The order in which the members are listed does not matter, so, for example, the set A of positive integers that are less than 6 can be expressed as 2. 11,2,3,4, } or 15.4) We can also write A in set-builder notation as A= [xx isanintoger and 0 (read “negative infinity”) in place ofa left endpoint Intervals that extend between two real numbersare called finite intervals, wher thal extend indefinitely in one or both directions are called infinite intervals EMAL. — By convention, infinite intervals ofthe form [a ++22) or (=z, b] are considered to be closed because they contain their endpoint, and intervals of the form (a, +24) and (~2, b) are considered 10 be open because they do not include their endpoint. The interval (<2, +00), whtich is the set of all real numbers, has no endpoints and can be regarded as either open or closed, as convenient. This set is often denoted by the special symbol R ‘To distinguish verbally between the open interval (0, +2) = (x x > O} sind the closed interval (0, +c) = [x : x = 0), we will call x positive if x = 0 and nonnegative if x 2 D. Thus, a positive number must be nonneyative, but a nonnegative number need net be positive, since it might possibly be 0.Appendix A: Reel Numbers, Intervals, and inequalities AS ‘Table an) ln@era) — Infinite: onen Conte) OR + infinite; open and closed o WA and B are sets, then the union of A and B (denoted by AU B) is the set whose members AS INTERSECTIONS OF belong to A or B (or both), and the intersection of A and B (denoted by AM B) is the set ‘whose members belong to botlt A and 1. For example, (eOex oUfe dcx < Ta (eid be when c is negative, (d) ax bande fb. i IF call the direction of an inequality its sense, then these properties can be paraphrased : as follows: I (b) The sense of an inequality is unchanged if the same number is added 10 or subtracted from both sides. (6). The sense ofan inequality is unchanged ifborh sides are multiplied by the same positive number, but the sense is reversed if both sides are multiplied by the same negative numberAppendix A: Real Numbers, Intervals, and Inequalities (a) Inequatiies with the same sense can be added. (e) both sides of an inequality have the same sign, then the sense of the inequality ts reversed by taking the reciprocal of each side and > ind > are replac REMARK, ‘These properties remain true if the symbols in Theorem A.1 Example 1 INEQUALITY oPeRATION INEQUALITY 226 Add 710 both sides, s<13 Subtract 8 from both sides. “<2 Multiply both sides by 3 ~6<18 Multiply both sides by 3 ae? Multiply both sides by 4 369 Multiply both sides by 3<7 Take reciprocals of both sides, -8<-6 “Take rociprocals of bath sides 4<5,-7<% Add corresponding sides AA solution of an inequality in an unknown + is a value for x that makes the inequality a true SOLYING INEQUALITIES: statement. For example, x = 1 is a solution of the inequality x < 5, but x = 7 is not, The set ofall solutions of an inequality is called its softion set, Itcan be shown that iFone does not multiply both sices of an inequality by zero or an expression involving an unknown, then the operations in Theorem A.1 will not change the Solution set of the inequ: process of finding the solution set of an inequality is called sofving the inequality The eo Example 2 Solve 3 +7 < ie operations of Theorem A.1 to isolate x on one side of the in- Solution, We will use equality. 34 Tx 52x 9 Gren To <2 — 12. Wesabe fomba sides, ¢ not multiplied by any expressions involving the unknown x. the ast in equality has the same solution set asthe ist, Thus the solution sets the interval (~2x, —'2] Fiquea7 shown in FigureA7, Example 3. Solve7 Sx <9. lly @ combination of the two ineq) Solution. The given inequality is act Sy <9 7$2-Sx and 2 ‘We could solve the two inequalities separately, then determine the values of » that satisfy sets. However, itis possible to work with the intersection of the two solu both by t the combined inequalities in this problem:Figure AS Appendix A: Real Numbers, Intervals, and Inequalities A7 We mpi My —} a eer ih besarte ete Thus, the solution set is the interval (~Z,—1] shown in Figure AS, Example 4 Solve.x? —3r > 10, Solution. By subtracting 10 from both sides, the inequality ean be rewritten as ?_3y-10>0 Factoring the left side y (+20-5)>0 elds. The values of « for which x +2 =Oorx — divide the coordinate line into three open intervals, 5), (5. +) O are x 5. These values (= 2), fon each of which the product (x + 2)(v ~ 5) has constant sign. To determine those signs wwe will choose an arbitrary number in euch interval at which we will determine the signs these are called test values. As shown in values. The results can be ors: ire A.B, we will use ized as follows: 0, and 6 as our test (2.05) INTERVAL TEST VALUE AT THE TEST VALUE a oe 0 0) = 6 ne) ‘The patter of signs in the intervals is shown on the number Tine in the middle of Figure A.9. We deduce that the sal +2), whiich is shown at the bottom of Test values a ° a fess ses eer) Solution set for G4 Dir 5)> 0 Example 5 Solve Solution. We could start by multiplying both sides by x. — 2 10 eliminate the fraction, However, this would require us to consider the eases.r —2 > Oand x —2 < 0 separatelyAB Agpencix A: Real Numbers, Intervals, and lnequaliies because the sense of the inequality would be reversed in the second case, but not the fits. ‘The following approach is simpler: 2x5 <0. | Weslo The quantity x — 3 is zero if x = 3, and the quantity x — 2 is zero ify = 2. These values divide the coordinate line into three open intervals, (2.2, 23. Gots) ‘on each of which the quotient (x ~3)/(x ~2) has constant sign. Using 0, 2.5, and 4as test values (Figure A.10}, we obtain the following results: (r= 3Her~2) a3 25 3 420) ‘The signs of the quotient are shown in the middle of Figure A.10. From the igure we see that the solution set consists of all real values of x such thal 2 =x <3. This is the interval (2, 3) shown at the bottom of F < Solution set for a Figure AD Exercise SET A 1. Among the terms integer, rational, and irrational, which 3. The repeating decimal 0.137137137...can be expressed as ‘ones apply'to the given number? tegers by writing @-} ) 0 o# ae (@ 025 «e) -vI6 ow 1000; = 137.137137137 (2) 0.020202... (h) 7.000 2. Which of the terms integer, rational, and irrational apply to he given number? (a) OBISLIBILISIILL... (6) 0.729999... (a) 0.123123128 ) 2777 () 0376237623762 @ 17 (©) 38G7BIBI81 (@) 0.4296004. Show that the repeating decimal 099999. . represents the fnumber 1. Sinee 1,000....is also deeimal representation ff 1. this problem shows that a real number ean have (wo different decimal representations. [fint: Use the technique of Exercise 3.] 5. The Rhind Papyrus, which isa ematical writin ament of Egyptian math- from about 1650 IC, is one oF the oldest [known examples of written mathematics. It is stated in the papyrus thatthe area A of a circle is related to its diame Doy Gp) (2) What approximation tor were the eyptians using? (b) Use a caleulating utility to determine if this approxi- mation is better oF worse than the approximation 2 6. The followin reall famous approximations to 2: (a) Use a caleulating utility to order these approximations. according to size. (b) Which of these approximations is elosest to but larger than 2°? (6) Which of these approximations is elosest to but smaller than 2? (@) Which of these approximations is most accurate? 7. In each line of the accompanying table, check the blocks, if any, that describe a valid relationship between the real numbers «and 5, The fist line is already completed as an illustration, p | aed | ash | a>b | azb | aah thal # v Appendix A: Real Numbers, Intervals, and Inequaliies AQ 8. In each line of the accompanying table, check the blocks, if any, that describe a valid numbers a, b, and ¢ fionship between the real asbeelasbelaebacladbec 075 “Tale Ext 9. Which ofthe following are ulways corret if a= 6? (a-356-3 () ash ()3-a<3—b @) 60 = 60 () a b= 2d LLL, For what values of are the following inequalities val? @asa aca 12. Wa < band b 4 ond 58 (x52 0 or eS (x>-2 and x33 @xs5 and 57 21, Express in interval notation (by fxix?> 4] @) fers 22. Ineach part, sketch the set on a coordinate Tine (a) [-3.2]U 1.4] (b) [4,610 18,11) (©) (4,0) 0-5, 1) @ 2,4U4,7) @) (2.400, (0 (1.2.3) 004, v2) = U3.) th) (5) 110, +2) @) nd sketch the solu- In Exercises 23-44, solve the inequality tion on a coordinate fine, Ube t6= 4 23, 3x - 25. 4 Sx < 3x — 26. 2x1 > 1 +9 MW 3sd—I eT 28. -2> 3-8 = —11 29, Soca 30, 38. (rH +A) <0 31. Ge Ayr $2) > 0 39. x? Or +20 <0 40. 2—3x + 3 a2 at, sa xi Wee ar-2=0 4h x'—3r4250 In Exereises 4S and 46, find all values of x for which the given expression yields a real number. 43, VP ex 6 a6, fe 47. Fabyeaheit and Celsius temperatures are related by the for mula C = £(F — 32), Ifthe tempersture in degrees Celsius ranges over the interval 25. C js the temperature range in degrees Falrenheit that day? cr fs either even or odd, The even integers are those that are divisible by 2, so is even if and only if n= 2k for some integer &. Each odd integer is one unit Tnger thay an even integer, so m is odd if and only if n= 2k + 1 for some integer k. Show: (a) [fn is even, then so is 1 () Hf is ond, then so isn? results about sums of rational and 48, Every in 49. Prove the follow irrational numbers (a) rational + rational (b) rational + irational 50, Prove the following resulls about products of rational and irational numbers (@) rational - rational = rational (b) rational - irrational = irrational Factor is nonzero). rational irrational (provided the rational 51, Show thatthe sum or produet of xo rational numbers ean be rational or irational 52, Classy the following as rational or ivati @o+x Wi (©) V8V2 @ VF (See Exercises 49 and 50) Prove: The average of two rations! numbers is a rational number, but the average of two irrational numbers canbe rational or irational. 34, Can a rational number satisfy 10° 85, Solve: 8x¥ — 4x? —2y 41 <0. 86, Solve: 12x? — 20x? = =11e +2, 57. Prove: Ifa, b,c, andd are positive numbers such th and ¢ < d, then ae = bd. (This result gives conditions ‘under which inequalities can be “multiplied together”) al and justify act {Is the number represented by the Jeeimal 10.101001000100001000001 plain your reasoning, rational or irationaledition CALCULUS EARLY TRANSCENDENTALS ie i Bar Eo Ste) inside