Contents

Contents
 Chapter 1 / Introduction

Radiation

Ionizing radiation
Non-ionizing radiation

the

1
 Chapter 1 / Introduction

Some uses of
ionizing radiation

2
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

atoms The oxygen

elements atom planetary
nucleus electrons presentation with
a nucleus of
8 protons and
8 neutrons within
8 orbital electrons

protons
neutrons

molecules

atomic number

mass number

3
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

nuclide

isotopes

Isotopes of
hydrogen

Decay of
radionuclides: beta particle
different types of
radiation and positron
half-lives for
uranium-238
series gamma rays photons
radioactivity,

decay
radionuclide

alpha particle

4
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

Natural Radionuclides

Water molecule

Radionuclides Unstable nuclides

Radioactivity Emission of radiation

Alpha, beta, gamma,

Radiation types
neutron, and X ray

Activity Decay rate of radionuclide

Half-life Time to half activity

Radiation Energy

5
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

activity becquerel

Marie Curie
(1867–1934)
Half lives

half-life

Henri Becquerel
(1852–1908)

6
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

Alpha radiation α Beta radiation β

7
 Chapter 2 / Atoms and radiation

Gamma radiation γ Cosmic radiation

X rays

Neutron radiation

8
 Chapter 3 / Radiation and matter

electrical
interactions

ionization
ion

ionization

excitation.

9
 Chapter 3 / Radiation and matter

nucleus of a cell

free radicals

DNA

chromosomes

Ionizing radiation
and tissue





10
 Chapter 3 / Radiation and matter

Hierarchy of
dose quantities

photographic
films, geiger–müller tubes scintillation counters
thermoluminescent materials silicon diodes 


absorbed dose gray,

pictured on page 13

equivalent dose
sievert

pictured on page 13

11
 Chapter 3 / Radiation and matter

Calculation of
effective dose

Consider a
circumstance
in which a
radionuclide
causes
exposure of
the lung, the Tissue weighting
liver, and the Tissue or organ
factor
surfaces of the
bones. Gonads 0.20
Bone marrow (red) 0.12
Suppose that
the equivalent Colon 0.12
doses to the Lung 0.12
tissues are,
respectively, Stomach 0.12
100, 70, and Bladder 0.05
300 mSv.
Breast 0.05
effec-
The Liver 0.05 tive dose
effective Oesophagus 0.05
dose is
calculated as Thyroid 0.05
(100 × 0.12) + Skin 0.01
(70 × 0.05) +
(300 × 0.01) = Bone surface 0.01
18.5 mSv Remainder 0.05

The calculation Whole body total 1.00

shows that the
risk of harmful
effects from
this particular collective effective dose.
pattern of radia-
tion exposure
will be the
same as the risk
from 18.5 mSv man sievert
received uniformly
throughout the dose
whole body. collectiv

12
 Chapter 4 / Sources of ionizing radiation

Harold Gray
(1905–1965)

decay products
fallout

consumer products

Rolf Sievert
(1896–1966)

13
 Chapter 4 / Sources of ionizing radiation

Compiled from
data in Tables
1 and 2 of
UNSCEAR 2000
Report to the UN
General Assembly

Source Dose (mSv)

Natural
Cosmic 0.4
Gamma rays 0.5
Internal 0.3
Radon 1.2
Artificial
Medical 0.4
Atmospheric nuclear testing 0.005
Chernobyl 0.002
Nuclear Power 0.0002
Total (rounded) mSv 2.8

14
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

deterministic effects

Deterministic
effects on vision

stochastic effects

15
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

Follicular
Carcinoma of
Thyroid
A.K. Padhy/IAEA

risk factor

16
Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

17
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

risk factor

18
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

Risk factor
Tissue or organ
(× 10-2 Sv-1)
Bladder 0.30
Bone marrow (red) 0.50
Bone surfaces 0.05
Breast 0.20
Colon 0.85
Liver 0.15
Lung 0.85
Oesophagus 0.30
Ovary 0.10
Skin 0.02
Stomach 1.10
Thyroid 0.08
Remainder 0.50
Total (rounded) 5.00

probability

mutations

19
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

Chromosome 21
abnormality
in female with
Down’s Syndrome

20
Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

21
 Chapter 5 / Radiation effects

Circumstances Health Sources

of exposure consequences of information

Early effects
High dose and dose rate
to much of the body Death Human data from various
to area of skin Erythema sources
to testes and ovaries Sterility

Late effects
Any dose or dose rate Risk factors for human
Risk depends on dose Various cancers beings estimated by extra-
Appear years later polating human data for high
doses and dose rates

Any dose or dose rate Risk factors for human

Risk depends on dose Hereditary defects beings inferred from animal
Appear in offspring data and the absence of
human evidence

High dose at any rate Human data from various

Functional damage
Various times to appear sources

Dose in the womb Mental retardation Limited human data

Appears in the child

22
Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

23
 Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

Justification of a practice

Application of
individual dose limits
Optimization of protection

Justification of intervention Optimization of intervention

24
 Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

Aerial photo of
uranium tailings
retention
structure, showing
the central decant
structure and
evaporation ponds
for removal of
excess water
Western Mining
Corporation/
Australia

October 2002

September 2003

nuclear power

nuclear power
industry.
radioactive wastes

25
 Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

26
Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

Parameters Workers Public

Effective dose
Prime limit 20a 1
Constraints –b 0.3c
Equivalent dose
Lens of eye 150a 15
Area of skind 500a 50
Extremitiese 500a 50

27
 Chapter 6 / System of radiological protection

Organizations
sponsoring the
International
Basic Safety
Standards

28
Chapter 7 / Natural radiation

29
 Chapter 7 / Natural radiation

Worldwide average Typical range

Source Dose (mSv) Dose (mSv)

Cosmic radiation 0.4 0.3–1.0

Gamma radiation 0.5 0.3–0.6

Based on Table
1 of UNSCEAR Radon inhalation 1.2 0.2-10
2000 Report
Internal irradiation 0.3 0.2–0.8
to UN General
Assembly
Total (rounded) 2.4 1.0–10

30
Chapter 7 / Natural radiation

31
 Chapter 7 / Natural radiation

32
 Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

diagnostic radiology
nuclear
medicine
radiotherapy

Population Number of examinations Average annual

per physician per 1000 people per year effective dose, mSv

< 1000 920 1.2

1000–3000 150 0.14

Taken from Table 2
3000–10 000 20 0.02
of UNSCEAR
2000 Report
> 10 000 < 20 0.02
to the General
Assembly
World average 330 0.4

33
 Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

First X ray of hand

(Frau Röntgen)

Conventional X ray Computed tomography

Examination
dose (mSv) dose (mSv)

Head 0.07 2

Teeth < 0.1 –

Chest 0.1 10
Derived from data
in UNSCEAR Abdomen 0.5 10
2000 Report,
Annex D, Vol. 1 Pelvis 0.8 10
Tables 15 and 19
Lower spine 2 5

Lower bowel 6 –

Limbs and joints 0.06 –

34
Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

CT scanning

Technetium-99m
scintigram of a
patient with a right
knee prosthesis
and signs of
infection (arrow)

35
 Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

Effective dose
Organ scan
(mSv)

Brain 7

Bone 4
Rounded values,
derived from data Thyroid, lung 1
in UNSCEAR
2000 Report, Liver, kidney 1
Vol.1, Annex D,
Table 42

brachytherapy

36
 Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

Entrance surface dose per radiograph

Examination
(mGy)

Lumbar spine AP 10

Chest PA 0.4 Source: The

International Basic
Skull PA 5 Safety Standards
for Protection
against Ionizing
Radiation and for
the Safety
of Radiation
Sources (1996)
Schedule III,
page 279

37
 Chapter 8 / Medical uses of radiation

38
Chapter 9 / Occupational exposure to radiation

Common uses
of radiation in
industry

Industrial
radiographer
wearing
TLD badge

Film and TLD

dosimeters

39
 Chapter 9 / Occupational exposure to radiation

Source Dose (mSv)

Artificial sources

Nuclear industry
Uranium mining 4.5
Data for Uranium milling 3.3
1990–1994 Enrichment 0.1
Source: UNSCEAR Fuel fabrication 1.0
Report 2000, Nuclear reactors 1.4
Vol. 1, Annex E, Reprocessing 1.5
Tables 12, 16,
22 and 43 Medical uses
Radiology 0.5
Dentistry 0.06
Nuclear medicine 0.8
Radiotherapy 0.6

Industrial sources
Irradiation 0.1
Radiography 1.6
Isotope production 1.9
Well-logging 0.4
Accelerators 0.8
Luminizing 0.4

Natural sources

Radon sources
Coal mines 0.7
Metal mines 2.7
Premises above ground 4.8
(radon)

Cosmic sources
Civil aircrew 3.0

40
Chapter 9 / Occupational exposure to radiation

Medical
radiographer
wearing film badge

Variation in indoor
radon concentra-
tion in a house
with moderate
levels
J. Miles/NRPB

41
 Chapter 9 / Occupational exposure to radiation

Effective Dose
Cities
(μSv)

Source: Exposure Vancouver  Honolulu 14.2

of Aircraft Crew to
Cosmic Radiation, Frankfurt  Dakar 16.0
a report of the Madrid  Johannesburg 17.7
EURADOS
Working Group 5 Madrid  Santiago de Chile 27.5
to the Group of Copenhagen  Bangkok 30.2
Experts established
under Article 31
Montreal  London 47.8
of the Euratom Helsinki  New York (JFK) 49.7
Treaty. European
Frankfurt  Fairbanks, Alaska 50.8
Commission
London  Tokyo 67.0
Paris  San Francisco 84.9

42
Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Pathways of
human exposure
to radiation from
the release of
radionuclides to
the environment

43
 Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Site, country Highest individual

Collective
(country that Type(s) of dose to local people
dose
conducted tests, weapons test at time of tests
(man Sv)
if different) (mSv)

Nevada, Atmospheric and 60–90 470

USA underground
Bikini and Enewetak, Atmospheric 1100–6000 160
Marshall Islands
(USA)
Semipalatinsk, Atmospheric and 2000–4000 4600–11 000
Kazakhstan underground
(USSR)
Novaya Zemlya, Atmospheric low low
Russian Federation
(USSR)
Maralinga and Emu, Atmospheric 1 700
Australia
(UK)
Christmas Island, Atmospheric low low
Australia
(UK)
Reganne, Algeria Atmospheric unknown unknown
(France)
Lop Nor, Atmospheric 0.1 unknown
China
Mururoa and Atmospheric and 1–5 70
Fangataufa, underground
French Polynesia
(France)

44
Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Remnants of
nuclear testing at
Semipalatinsk:
A goose tower
built to observe
nuclear tests.

A lake produced by
a nuclear explosion
during an excava-
tion experiment
V. Mouchkin/IAEA

High volume air

sampler

45
 Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Nuclear power
plant at Chernobyl
V. Mouchkin /IAEA

Distribution of
137Cs following
Chernobyl
accident

46
 Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

nuclear
fuel cycle

actinides

47
 Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Most exposed Collective

Stage of cycle Type of effluent people dose
(mSv) (man Sv)

Fuel fabrication Airborne 0.01 350

Liquid 0.01
Reactor operation Airborne 0.001 380
Liquid 0.004
Fuel reprocessing Airborne 0.05 4500
Liquid 0.14

48
Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Pasture
land nearby
Semipalatinsk test
site in Kazakhstan

49
 Chapter 10 / Environmental pollution

Extracting oil
from rapeseed
provides new
productive uses
for land in Belarus
contaminated by
the Chernobyl
accident
V. Mouchkin/IAEA

50
 Chapter 11 / Nuclear power

enriched uranium

fission fission products

fast neutrons

thermal neutrons
thermal reactors

moderator

51
 Chapter 11 / Nuclear power

The main types of reactor are:

Pressurized water reactors (PWRs),
boiling water reactors (BWRs) WWER
reactors Gas cooled reactors

Heavy water reactors Water-cooled graphite-moderated reactors

52
 Chapter 12 / Waste management

Exempt waste

Alpha waste
Low/intermediate level waste

NORM waste is
High level waste produced in
mining and
fertilizer processing

Short lived waste

NORM

53
 Chapter 12 / Waste management

Type of
Typical sources Characteristics Disposal
waste

Exempt Contains very Can be treated Normal municipal

waste limited amounts of as normal refuse refuse disposal facilities
radionuclides

Mining Mine tailings Huge volumes Mine tailings dams

waste — return high grade
tailings underground

NORM Waste from minerals Enhanced levels Mine tailings for low
waste processing scale from of naturally grades, on surface
pipes or equipment occurring storage for higher
radionuclides grades

Low/ Contaminated Limited heat Shorter lived in near

intermediate paper, clothing, generation surface disposal
level waste laboratory equipment, facilities or intermediate
contaminated soil and depth mined caverns
building materials (from around 60 to
100 m depth)
Ion exchange materials
from treatment of Longer lived stored
effluents sludges from pending development
cooling ponds of deeper disposal
facilities

Alpha As low/intermediate Treated as a Geological disposal,

waste level waste, but with special category consideration being
alpha (especially in some given to intermediate
plutonium) countries depth storage (tens of
contamination metres)

High level Spent fuel (when Need heavy Geological disposal

waste treated as waste) shielding and (a few hundred metres
cooling deep in stable
Highly active liquor geological formations)
from reprocessing

54
 Chapter 12 / Waste management

waste management

disposal

Underground
repository in
Sweden

Vitrified high level

radioactive waste

Decommissioning

55
 Chapter 12 / Waste management

The Greifswald
and Rheinsberg
decommissioning
project in Germany
J. Ford/IAEA

56
Chapter 12 / Waste management

Unrehabilitated
uranium tailings
in Tajikistan
F. Harris/IAEA

57
 Chapter 12 / Waste management

58
 Chapter 13 /Emergencies

Demolition and
removal of rubble
from a house
contaminated
during the Goiânia
accident

(see Table on page 66)

59
 Chapter 13 /Emergencies

Depiction of
plume dispersion
and deposition

60
Chapter 13 /Emergencies

Counter-
measures in
an emergency

61
 Chapter 13 /Emergencies

Dose level
Countermeasure Organ
to be averted

Sheltering Whole body (effective) 10 mSv in 2 days

Evacuation Whole body (effective) 50 mSv in 1 week

Iodine administration Thyroid 100 mGy

Milk, infant foods and

Important Other foods
drinking water
radionuclides (Bq/kg)
(Bq/kg)

Strontium-90 100

Source: Iodine-131 100

The International
Basic Safety Plutonium-239 1 10
Standards for
Protection against Caesium-137 1000 1000
Ionizing
Radiation and
for the Safety of
Radiation Sources,
Schedule V,
Table V-I

62
Chapter 13 /Emergencies

63
 Chapter 13 /Emergencies

The IAEA is
helping Georgia
search for
radioactive
sources
abandoned in
remote areas
P. Pavlicek/IAEA

64
Chapter 14 / Risks from radiation sources

Blistering of the
right hand
following
radiation injury

65
 Chapter 14 / Risks from radiation sources

Deaths caused by
radiation exposure
Year Location Type of Source
Workers Public Patients

1987 Goiâna, Removed 4

Brazil teletherapy source

1989 San Salvador, Industrial sterilizer 1

El Salvador

1990 Zaragoza, Radiotherapy severalb

Spain accelerator

1990 Soreq, Industrial sterilizer 1

Israel

1991 Nesvizh, Industrial sterilizer 1

Belarus

1992 China Lost cobalt-60 3

source

1992 USA Brachytherapy 1

1994 Tammiku, Source removed 1

Estonia from waste
repository
1996 San José, Radiotherapy severalb
Costa Rica

1997 Sarov, Critical assembly 1

Russian Federation

1999 Tokaimura, Criticality accident 2

Japan

2000 Thailand Lost cobalt-60 3

source

2000 Egypt Lost cobalt-60 2

source

2001 Panama Radiotherapy severalb

overexposures

66
 Chapter 14 / Risks from radiation sources

Number of reported
Type of Recycled metal industry
incidents worldwide
source mislaid involved
(1983–1998)

Cobalt-60 15 Steel (14), Copper

Caesium-137 30 Steel (27), Aluminium (2), Lead

Iridium-192 1 Steel

Radium-226 3 Aluminium (2), Steel

Thorium-232 3 Aluminium (2), Steel

Americium-241 3 Aluminium, Copper, Gold

Others 4 Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Lead

Total 59

67
 Chapter 14 / Risks from radiation sources

68
Chapter 15 / Transport of radioactive materials

Transport of
irradiated nuclear
fuel elements

69
 Chapter 15 / Transport of radioactive materials

Testing ability of
spent fuel
transport
container to
withstand impact
of train crash

70
 Appendix A / Glossary

Absorbed dose

Actinides elements atomic number

radioactive

Activity radioactive material

radionuclide

Alpha particle protons neutrons nucleus

atom radionuclide

Atom elec-
trons protons element

Atomic mass isotope element

atom

Atomic number protons nucleus atom. Z

Becquerel activity

Beta particle electron positron nucleus

neutron

Brachytherapy

Chromosomes nuclei of cells

genes

71
 Appendix A / Glossary

Collective dose radiation dose

collective effective dose

Collective effective dose effective doses

radiation

Consumer products
radioactive

Cosmic rays ionizing radiation

Decay radionuclide
radioactive

Decay product nuclide radionuclide decay

radionuclide decays
radionuclides

Decommissioning
Decommissioning

Depleted uranium
natural uranium
enriched uranium

Diagnostic radiology X rays

Disposal radioactive waste facility

DNA

Dose radiation
absorbed dose, equivalent dose, effective dose collective
effective dose. effective dose

Effective dose dose radiation detri-

ment dose equivalent dose

72
 Appendix A / Glossary

Electrical interaction

Electromagnetic radiation

gamma rays

Electron

Electron volt

Element atoms atomic number

Enriched uranium
natural uranium

Equivalent dose dose

absorbed
dose
radiation

Erythema
radiation doses

Excitation radiation atom molecule

ionization nucleus electrons
radiation atom molecule

Fallout

Fast neutrons neutrons

fission
×

Fast reactor nuclear reactor fast

neutrons

Fission

neutrons gamma radiation

73
 Appendix A / Glossary

Fission products Nuclides

radioactive decay nuclides

Free radical atom

Fusion nuclei
nucleus

Gamma ray

Geiger–Müller tube
Ionizing radiation
dose.

Genes
chromosomes

Gray absorbed dose

Half-life radionuclide activity

t½

Ion atom molecule molecule

electrons

Ionization atom molecule

ions

Ionizing radiation radiation protection radiation

alpha particles, gamma
rays, X rays neutrons.

Irradiation

Isotopes Nuclides protons neu-

trons

Man sievert collective effective dose

74
 Appendix A / Glossary

Mass number protons neutrons nucleus atom

A

Moderator thermal reactors

fast neutrons fission thermal neutrons
fission

Molecule atoms

Mutation DNA nucleus of a cell

Neutron

Non-ionizing radiation Radiation ionizing radiation ultravio-

let radiation, visible light, infrared radiation radiofrequency radiation.

Nuclear fuel cycle

nuclear reactors
waste management
decommissioning

Nuclear medicine radionuclides

Nuclear reactor nuclear fission

fusion

Nucleus (of an atom) atom

protons neutrons

Nucleus (of a cell)

DNA

Nuclide atom protons neutrons

nucleus

Order of magnitude

Photon electromagnetic radiation

75
 Appendix A / Glossary

Positron
electron

Pressurized water reactor thermal reactor moderator

Probability

Proton

PWR Pressurized water reactor

Radiation
ionizing radiation
non-ionizing radiation

Radiation detriment
exposure radiation

Radioactive radioactivity
radioactive
regulatory body radioactivity

Radioactive waste
radionuclides
activities regulatory body

Radioactivity
radiation

Radiobiology ionizing radiation

Radiation protection radiological protection protection

exposure ionizing radiation

Radionuclide radioactive nuclide.

Radiotherapy

Regulatory body

Risk health effect

exposure radiation

76
 Appendix A / Glossary

Risk factor lifetime risk radiation detriment exposure

equivalent dose effective dose

Scintillation counter
ionizing radiation
dose

Sievert effective dose equivalent dose

Silicon diode
ionizing radiation.
dose

Thermal neutrons Neutrons

atoms
molecules
×

Thermal reactor nuclear reactor

thermal neutrons

Thermoluminescent material
radiation

Waste management
treatment conditioning transport storage disposal radioactive waste

Wavelength electromagnetic wave

X ray

gamma ray.

77
 Appendix B / Symbols and Units

Decimal Scientific

1 230 000 1.23 × 106

100 000 105
3 531 3.53 × 103 a
15.6 1.56 × 101

0.239 2.4 × 10-1 b

0.001 10-3
0.000 087 8.7 × 10-5

kilo milli

Multiplier Prefix Symbol Multiplier Prefix Symbol

101 deca da 10-1 deci d

102 hecto h 10-2 centi c
103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
1015 peta P 10-15 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a
1021 zetta Z 10-21 zepto z
1024 yotta Y 10-24 yocto y

79
 Appendix B / Symbols and Units

Mass and
atomic numbers:

per

Symbol Term Symbol Term

α alpha particle A mass number
β beta particle eV electron volt
γ gamma ray Bq becquerel
e electron Gy gray
p proton Sv sievert
n neutron man Sv man sievert
Z atomic number t½ half-life

Quantity Old unit Symbol New unit Symbol Relationship

Activity curie Ci becquerel Bq 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq

Absorbed
rad rad gray Gy 1 rad = 0.01 Gy
dose

Equivalent
rem rem sievert Sv 1 rem = 0.01 Sv
dosea

80
 Selected References

21