Manisa Celal Bayar University

PYSICS II LABORATORY MANUAL

1. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE

FORCE

2. OHM’S LAW

3. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

4. STORAGE AND FLOW OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

Name :

Last Name :
St. Number :

Class :
Department :

Manisa 2023
Experiment 1: MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCE

Objective: Determination of resistance of a resistor by colour codes and measurement of the

internal resistance of a battery through its electromotive force.

The equipment: Ammeter, voltmeter, resistors, battery

Theory:

Resistors are carbon compound materials and their power may vary in between 1/4 and 2 Watt.
This power values represents the maximum power that the resistor can stand. It is difficult to
write the properties of the resistors on them since they are very small. This is the main reason
for using colour codes.

There are four colour bands on a resistor as shown in figure 1. If these bands are named as A,
B, C, D the first 3 band gives the size of the resistance. The D band on the other hand, gives
the tolerance percentage. The colour bands may have twelve different colours as shown in
table below.

Figure 1: Resistance and the colour bands

Table1: List of the colours and their corresponding values:

Colours (just for A, B, C) Digits

Silver (just for C) -2
Gold (just for C) -1
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
 Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

The resistance is determined by using the formula 𝐴𝐵 × 10 . The colour on band A gives
the first digit and the colour on B gives the second digit. The colour in third band C gives
the number of zeros after the first two digits. Some examples are listed in the table below.

Table2: Examples for reading a resistor’s resistance.

A B C Calculation Resistance (Ω)

ABx10C
Yellow Green Red 4 5x102 4500
Violet Grey Yellow 7 8x104 780000
White Blue Orange 9 6x103 96000
Blue Grey Black 6 8x100 68

Actually, the values given in the table are not the exact resistance values. They may vary a
bit due to some production defects. This fact is called the tolerance. That is why the D band
gives this tolerance in percentage. Tolerance values of some colour codes are given in table
below.

Table 3: Tolerances values of some colours

Colours Tolerance
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
Colourless 20%

The potential difference is the work done to move a unit charge between two points in an
electric field. The unit of the potential difference is Volt (V) if the unit of charge is taken as
Coulomb and the unit of the work is taken as joule.
A potential difference is needed between the two ends of a conductor to produce a current.
Moving electric charges (electrons) in this electric field will produce the current.

The amount of charge passing through a cross section of a conductor in unit time is called
the current. The unit of the current is Amper (A) if the unit of charge is taken as Coulomb.

The amount of current passing through a conductor is proportional to the amount of

potential difference between the two ends of the conductor. In other words, the ratio of the
potential difference to the amount of current passing through a conductor is constant (ohm’s
law). This constant is called resistance and represented by letter R. The ohm’s law is given
by the equation below.

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

The Experimental procedure:

a) Setup the circuit as shown in figure 2. Read the current values from ammeter for
each resistor that you connect between the points A and B. Write the values to table
1.
b) Draw a 𝑉 = 𝑓(𝐼) graph by using the values from table 1. This graphic is called “the
current-tension” characteristic of the battery used.

Figure 2: The electronic circuit.

Figure 3: The current- tension characteristic.

According to the 2nd Kirchhoff law:

E=Vi+V V=IR Vi=IRi

Therefore,

E=IRi+IR

Where E is the electromotive force, I is the current passing through the circuit, R is the outer
resistance (the resistance between the point A and B). The potential difference between the
points A and B (the two ends of the battery) for an arbitrary I value is,

V=IR

The electromotive force (EMK) of a battery, E, defined as the potential difference between
the ends of a battery without drawing a current. After reading the potential difference V
corresponding to any chosen current value I, the internal resistance Ri of a battery can be
calculated by using the equation

𝑬−𝑽
𝑹𝒊 =
𝑰

Calculations:

Table 4: The means for different resistance values

 R(Ω) I(Ampere) V(Volt)

Evaluation Questions:

1- How a voltmeter and an ammeter is connected to the circuit? Explain in detail.

2- Explain the meaning of the colour codes on resistors.
3- Why the resistance values of a resistor are written in colour codes?
4- What is the Ohm’s Law? Please explain.
Experiment 2: OHM’S LAW

Objective: Obtaining the current- tension characteristic.

The Equipment: DC power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, various resistors

Theory:

The electricity current is the movement of the electrons from the part where the potential is
high to the part where the potential is low. The current I at a wire is related to the amount of
charge flows from the wire. The current unit is Ampere (A) which is the charge amount passes
from the cross section of a conductor in a second. By this way there won’t be any negativity
which comes from charge at the calculation. The changing of I versus V is known as Ohm
Law

𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹

Where R is the resistance and the unit of the resistance is Ω (Ω=V/A).

The resistance of the wires are negligible. For this reason, the resistance of the circuit is
defined by the other circuit factors as resistance, lamp, and engine. The circuit factors known
as Ohmic resistance suit to the Ohm Law.
In this experiment the current passing from the circuit and the potential difference between
the two edges of the resistance is going to be measured and the properties of the resistors going
to be searched.

The Experimental procedure:

Figure1. The schema of the electronic circuit

Establish the circuit in figure 1. Be sure that the power supply is connected properly
otherwise in a case of reverse connection will damage the ammeter. Turn on the power
supply after establishing the whole circuit. When the power supply is turned on if the needle
of the ammeter goes to an opposite direction please directly turn off the power supply and
switch the points of the power supply. By increasing the potential with constant steps read
the current from ammeter. Write the current values for each potential to the Table 1.

For each resistor draw the graphics of V=f(I) at the same graph. As for the resistors V=IR,
the graph V=f(I) should pass from the origin and it should be a straight line, the incline
should be R. From the inclines calculate the values of the resistors.

The Calculations:

Table 1.

R1=……………. R2=…………….. R3=………………

V (Volt) I (mA) V (Volt) I (mA) V (Volt) I (mA)
Evaluation Questions:

1) If the potential between the points of the resistor is 7.5 V and the current is 120 mA,
then please calculate the value of the resistance.
2) If the current is 2,5 mA, find the potential between the points of the resistor. (use the
resistor value from question1)
3) What is Ohm’s Law?
4) What are the current intensity and the potential difference?
5) What is electrical resistivity? Tell the resistance of a conductor how and which
physical properties of a conductor related to?
6) How is the volt meter and ammeter connected to a circuit? Please answer the
question with the reasons.

Experiment 3: KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Objective: A general review of Kirchhoff’s Laws

Equipment: Power supply, volt meter, ammeter, various resistors.

Theory:

Thanks to the Kirchhoff’s Laws the current value of a complicated circuit’s each part can be
calculated. These laws are,

1st Kirchhoff Law: The sum of the currents coming to a point of a circuit is equal to the sum
of the currents going out from that point.
2nd Kirchhoff Law: Throughout any closed circuit, the numeric sum of the potential
difference should be zero.

∆𝑉 = 0

Figure 1. Three resistors are connected in series.

Let’s apply these laws to the serial circuit at the Figure 1. According to the 1st Law as the
same current (I) passes from all the resistors, the potential difference between the each
resistors points is,

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑 (1)

And the potential difference between the point “a” and point “b” is,

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) (2)
A power supply that inert resistance is very small; the electromotive force ε (EMK) is the
potential difference of the points “a” and “b”. For this reason the potential difference
between point “a” and point “b” is the ε EMK. According to the 2nd Kirchhoff’s Law, as
V=ε,

𝜺
𝑰= (3)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

can be written. In general the value of n times serial connected

resistors(R=R1+R2+R3+…..+Rn) behave as one resistor. From the equation (1) and (2) the
potentials and the current at the points of the resistors can be calculated with the help of ε,
R1, R2 and R3.

Figure 2. The parallel connected resistors

At the Figure 2 the parallel connected circuit, the total “I” current is breaks into three
parallel currents. From the 1st Kirchhoff’s Law, the current can be written as:

𝜺 𝜺 𝜺
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = (4)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

If these three equations sum up side by side,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 = 𝜺 + + (5)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

n times parallel connected resistors equivalent resistance is,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + (6)
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
By using equation (4) and (5) I can be written in terms of I1, I2, I3, ε, R1, R2, R3.

The Experimental Procedure:

Fasten the serial connected resistors to the power supply. Measure the current I, the potential
V1, V2, V3 which at the edges of R1, R2, R3 respectively. By the help of these measurements,
find each resistors value from the graph of I vs V. As Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law, indicate that the
total potential on the resistors is equal to the ε (EMK) of the circuit.

As shown at the Figure 2, fasten the three resistors to the power supply as parallel. Measure
the I, I1, I2, I3 and the ε (EMK), applied to the circuit. Calculate the potential difference of
each parallel line by the help of measured currents. As the resistors connected as parallel, the
potential must be same for each of them. According to the Kirchhoff’s 1st Law, please show
that the total of I1, I2, I3 currents is equal to the I the current at the main line.

Calculations:

For various potential values record the current value on each resistor. By the help of these
data calculate the value of each resistor. For this draw a graphic V1, V2, V3 versus I1, I2, I3.
By the help of inclines of the graphics find out the resistances R1, R2, R3.

R1=……………. R2=…………….. R3=………………

V1 (Volt) I1 (mA) V2 (Volt) I2 (mA) V3 (Volt) I3 (mA)

R1 R2 R3
The Real Value
The Value
calculated from the
graphic.
Error %
For each searched circuit record the current and the potential values. Beside this by the help
of the resistance values calculate these.

Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel

Measurement Calculation Measurement Calculation
V I
V1 I1
V2 I2
V3 I3

Evaluation Questions:

1. Explain how the main current is related to the currents of resistors in both circuits?
2. Explain how the emf voltage ε is related to the voltages across the resistors in both
circuits?
3. Find the total resistance of each circuit by using the measured ε and values. Compare
the
result by the known values.
4. Which combination of the three resistors gives the minimum total resistance?
5. What is the internal resistance of a power supply? If the internal resistance is r, how the
emf
ε is related to the potential difference across the ends of the power supply?
Experiment 4: STORAGE AND FLOW OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

Objective: By using a simple RC circuit, charging and discharging of a condenser and

searching the time changing current and charge amount.

Equipment: DC power supply, Volt meter, condenser, resistor, timekeeper

Theory:
A capacitor consists of two oppositely charged metal plates placed in parallel to each other.
The total charge Q collected in a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential differences
across the plates. The ratio between Q and V is called capacitance and represented by C.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 1

The unit of capacitance is farad (F) in SI system and the commonly used values are:

1 mikrofarad (1F) = 10-6 F

1 pikofarad (1pF) =10-12 F

A capacitor with capacitance C as shown in figure 1 (a,b), the tension V across the capacitor
will behave as an oppositely charged emf while being charged under a constant voltage .
According to the Kirchhoff’s laws:

𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽 − 𝑰𝑹 = 𝟎 2

is the constant electromotive force of the power supply, V is the voltage difference across the
ends of the capacitor and IR is the voltage difference across the ends of the resistor.
Figure 1. (a) (b)

𝐐
𝑽= 3
𝐂

By using the equation 1, equation 2 and 3 can be rewritten as

𝑸
𝑽𝟎 = + 𝑰𝑹 4
𝑪

In this equation V0, C and R are constant. On the other hand, Q and I are time dependent
variables. But the time dependence cannot be obtained from equation 4 alone. The current
passing through the circuit is given by the following relation:

𝒅𝑸
𝑰= 5
𝒅𝒕

By placing this I value to the equation 4,

𝑸 𝒅𝑸
𝑽𝟎 = + 𝑹 6
𝑪 𝒅𝒕

This is a differential equation which is describing the charging operation of a capacitor C over
the resistor R. The capacitor starts to discharge and a reverse current starts to pass if the power
supply with V0 on the circuit is disconnected and if D and C probes are connected by a wire
as shown in figure 1b. The equation that is obtained from 6 by substituting V0=0 is,
 𝑸 𝒅𝑸
+ 𝑹=𝟎 7
𝑪 𝒅𝒕

This equation is a differential equation of a capacitor discharging over the resistor R. The
differential equation is a first order equation for variable Q and can easily be solved

𝒅𝑸 𝟏
=− 𝒅𝒕
𝑸 𝑹𝑪

By taking integral of each side.

𝟏
𝒍𝒏 𝑸 = 𝒕+𝒌
𝑹𝑪

If the amount of charge is Q0 at the beginning of the discharge, by substituting t=0 to the
equation above k=ln Q0, can be obtained. The equation that gives the instantaneous charge
amount while the capacitor is discharging over the resistor R is obtained by using k value as:

𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑸𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝑹𝑪 8

The time dependence of the amount of charge while charging the capacitor over the resistor
R can be obtained from the solution of the differential equation 7 as:

𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑸𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 9
𝑹𝑪

Here Q is the maximum charge that can be collected by a capacitor under the potential. If each
side of the equation 9 is divided by C,

𝑸 𝑸𝟎 𝒅𝑸
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑰= 10
𝑪 𝑪 𝒅𝒕

and by using the equations above, the time dependence of potential and current while charging
the capacitor is:

𝒕
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 11
𝑹𝑪
10

𝒕
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 12
𝑹𝑪

𝑸𝟎
in this equation, 𝑰𝟎 = is the current at t=0.
𝑹𝑪
The time dependence of dependence while charging the capacitor is shown in figure 2a. The
equations for the discharge of a capacitor over a resistor R can be obtained in as similar way
to the capacitor charging. Then the equations for the discharge becomes,

𝒕
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝑹𝑪 13

𝒕
𝑰 = −𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝑹𝑪 14

The time dependence of dependence VAB while discharging the capacitor is shown in figure
2b. The equations above show that time dependence of Q, VAB and I are decreasing
logarithmically. At time constant is defined to explain this logarithmic decrease. The time
constant is defined as the time needed to drop the value of the parameters Q, VAB and I to 1/e
of their initial value and it is represented by  . For example, if the value  =RC is chosen for
the equation 13, the value

𝟏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 = 𝑽𝟎 ⁄ 𝒆

is obtained. Therefore, the time constant  =RC can be calculated when R and C values are
known.
There are two ways of determining the time constant experimentally.

1. The 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝟎 value is measured before starting the discharge of the capacitor. Let’s take
V0 =10 as an example. A chronometer is started and the potential difference is measured by a
voltmeter continuously. The time constant is determined when the potential drops to the
value:

𝑉 10
𝑉 = = = 3,68𝑉
𝑒 2,72

2. The values are measured at different times while discharging the capacitor and the values
are written to a table. The logarithms are taken of the measured 𝑽𝑨𝑩 values. The equation 12
can be written in logarithmic form as:

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 − 𝑡
𝑅𝐶

In this case 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉 versus t graphics will be a line as shown in figure 3

Figure 3

The slope of this graph is,

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 −0,43
𝑚=− =
𝑅𝐶 𝜏

The time constant can be calculated by using the slope and the relation. 𝜏 = −0,43⁄𝑚 e
The Experimental procedure:

Construct the circuit as shown below. Keep always open the switch (point a) of the power
supply and close the switch by connecting to point b when you want to charge the capacitor.

Figure 4

a) Adjust the power supply to 10 volts. Construct the circuit by taking = 470𝑘Ω and 𝐶 =
100𝜇𝐹 . Close the switch by connect a and b points and read V0 value from voltmeter. Press
the chronometer while disconnecting the switch and observe the voltage drop from voltmeter.
Stop and read the time from chronometer when the voltage drops to value V0 /2.72=3.6. You

will be able to calculate the time constant 𝜏 from this time value. Calculate the average time
constant by repeating this measurement 10 times. Calculate also the time constant

theoretically (𝜏 ) value) and compare with the measured average (𝜏 ).

b) Recharge the capacitor again and record the voltage values at certain time steps while
discharging. Draw a logV versus time graph by using measured values since change in voltage
will be logarithmic. The slope of the graph will give time constant 𝜏 and compare this value

with 𝜏 .

Evaluation Questions:
1. Show that RC is in units of time.

2. Why the charging of the capacitor is faster than discharge when the switch in figure 4 is

closed?

3. Is it possible to change the discharge time of the capacitor? How?