ATOM

o Law of Mass Conservation. Early scientists made many measurements on the

masses of reactants and products of various reactions and found that mass is
always conserved in chemical transformations. John Dalton postulated that this
would be the case if all matter were composed of indestructible particles he called
"atoms" which in chemical reactions merely rearrange.

o Law of Constant Composition. Early scientists discovered that pure water is always
11.2 percent hydrogen and 88.8 percent oxygen by mass. Dalton postulated that this
was further evidence for the existence of atoms, since the result could be explained if
all molecules of water have the same chemical formula and if each kind of atom has
on the average the same mass.

o Law of Multiple Proportions stated that when two elements form a series of
compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a
fixed mass of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.

o Dalton’s Atomic Theory states that:

1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element.
Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms, not changes in the
atoms themselves (law of mass conservation).
3. Atoms of an element are identical and are different from atoms of other
elements.
4. Compounds form when atoms combine with each other. A given
compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms
(law of constant composition).

After Dalton published his theory, he prepared the first table of atomic masses.
Because the masses of individual atoms are so small, he could only determine the
relative masses of the elements. Dalton assigned an atomic mass of 1 to hydrogen,
the lightest known substance.

o Other Atomic Models

o The study of atoms done by John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Niels
Bohr and Erwin Schrodinger results to the discovery of the subatomic particles
that is found in the structure of atom itself.

o Structure of the Atom

o Electrons

The first convincing evidence for subatomic particles came when experimenters observed
rays of light when conducting electricity through gases at low pressures. J.J. Thomson
(1856-1940) concluded that the rays appeared when negatively charged particles collided
with the gas molecules in the tube. He named the particles electrons. Thomson determined
the mass-to-charge ratio of the electron was the same regardless of what gas was in the
tube, so he concluded that the electron was a fundamental particle found in all atoms.
Since atoms were known to be electrically neutral, Thomson proposed that the negatively
charged electrons were distributed randomly in a diffuse cloud of positive charge like
raisins in a plum pudding. (refer to the atomic models presented above)

Robert Millikan measured the charge of the electron by measuring the effect of an electrical
field on the rate at which charged oil drops fell under the influence of gravity. He used this
value and Thomson's mass/charge ratio to calculate an electron's mass to be 9.11 x 10-28
g. This mass is approximately 1/2000 the mass of hydrogen, the lightest element!

o Protons

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) established that an atom contains a tiny, positively charged
center called an atomic nucleus. He bombarded a piece of thin gold foil with alpha particles
(a helium nucleus, 4He, which is emitted from certain radioactive materials). Since the mass
of an alpha particle is 7300 times that of an electron, Rutherford expected all the alpha
particles to smash right through the gold foil with, at most, very minor deflections in their
paths. Unexpectedly, a tiny percentage of the alpha particles reflected from the foil! The
plum pudding model could not explain these results. Rutherford postulated that the alpha
particles bounced off a tiny center of positive charge. He presented a new picture of an
atom as mostly space occupied by electrons, but which contained a tiny region of
concentrated positive charge which he called the nucleus. He postulated that the nucleus
contained positively charged particles he called protons which accounted for most of the
mass of the atom.

o Nucleus

Rutherford's work did not account for all the mass of an atom. Twenty years later, James
Chadwick discovered the neutron. This uncharged particle is present in the nucleus with the
protons and accounts for the remaining mass of the atom.

o Atomic Symbols and Isotopes

a) Atomic Number (Z): the number of protons in the nucleus

of an atom. Z= no. of protons

Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. A = no. of protons +
no. of neutrons

Each proton and neutron has one unit of mass. Notice that the mass
number (A)
minus the atomic number (Z) = the number of neutrons (N):

A – Z = ( no. of protons + no. of neutrons) – no. of protons = no of.

neutrons = N

c) Atomic Symbol: A symbol for each element based on its English, Latin, or
Greek name. The convention is to write the atomic symbol with the atomic
number as a left subscript, and the mass number as a left superscript. For atom
X, we write:
 d) Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons (the same element),
but different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers.
e) Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. The mass of a
carbon-12 atom is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units.
f) Atomic mass: the average of the masses of an element's naturally
occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundances.

Practice Exercise No. 1

THE ATOMS

Name: __________________________ Date Submitted: __________Score: ______

Yr. & Sec: ______________________

1. Label each of the following statements as true or false:

a. An atom with an atomic number of 7 and a mass of 14 is identical to an atom with
an atomic number of 6 and a mass of 14.
b. Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as protons.
c. The mass of an atom is due to the sum of the number of protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
2. Complete the table below.
Atomic Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge
Symbol
Example
20
20 40 20 20 0
11
11 23 11 0
16
16 32 2− 16 2-
8 8 8 0
12
14 2+ 12 2+
19 20 18

3. The element copper has two naturally occurring isotopes. One of these has a mass
of 62.93 amu and a natural abundance of 69.09%. A second isotope has a mass of
and a natural abundance of 30.91%. Calculate the atomic mass of copper

4. Identify what is being observed in each statement below.

a. The nucleus of a neutral atom contains 42 protons and 54 neutrons. What is the
element?
b. A neutral atom contains 110 neutrons and 74 electrons. What is the element?
c. If a chlorine atom has a mass number of 37, how many neutrons are there in its
nucleus?
d. One isotope of nitrogen has the symbol 14N. How many protons, neutrons, and
electrons are there in one 14N atom?

5. Complete the table below.

Atomic Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge
Symbol
Example
13
13
27 14 13 0
19 19
39 19 0
15
15 31 3− 16
29 34 27 2+
26
55 2+ 29 2+
8 8 10
 CHEMICAL BONDING I

o Bonds are attractive forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as
a unit. Bonding
relates to physical properties such as melting point, hardness and electrical and
thermal conductivity as well as solubility characteristics.
o Being bound requires less energy than existing in the elemental form. It also means
that energy was released from the system.
o Energy is RELEASED when a bond is formed, therefore, it REQUIRES energy to
break a bond.
o Bond energy refers to the energy required
to break the bond. o Valence electrons are the ones
that interact during bonding.
o Lewis symbols (after chemist G. N. Lewis) show how many unpaired electrons are
available for covalent bonding (in the case of nonmetals), or how many electrons will
be lost from metals to form a cation during ionic bonding.

o Ionic Bond (electrons held tightly by small core) is formed from an electrostatic
attraction between ions; usually produced by the reaction between a metal and
nonmetal nonmetals to form ions with noble gas electron configurations.
o cause very high melting points and usually a solid state since the attraction is so
strong that the ions are very close together in a crystal formation.

o Covalent Bond (tightly held electrons by small cores) are formed when electrons are
shared by nuclei. o usually exist as discreet molecules, and the physical
properties of these compounds depend on
how strongly the molecules interact with one another.
o most covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points (many exist as
liquids and gases) and poor electrical conductors, even when melted or
dissolved in water

o Electronegativity refers to the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a

bonding pair of electrons. The Pauling scale is the most used.
Image source: http://secrets-of-periodic-table.blogspot.com/2012/09/pauling-electronegativity-
values.html

• Writing Lewis Structure

To predict arrangement of atoms within the molecule use the following rules:
1. H is always a terminal atom. ALWAYS connected to only one other atom.
2. Element with the lowest electronegativity is central atom in molecule [not just the
oddball element]
3. Find the total # of valence electrons by adding up group #’s of the elements.
a. FOR IONS add for negative and subtract for positive
charge. Valence electrons: outermost electrons, commonly
the group of the element
4. Place one pair of electrons, a σ bond, between each pair of bonded atoms.
5. Subtract from the total the number of bonds you just used.
6. Place lone pairs about each terminal atom (EXCEPT H) to
satisfy the octet rule. Left over pairs are assigned to the
central atom. If the central atom is from the 3rd or higher
period, it can accommodate more than four electrons pairs,
up to six pairs.
7. If the central atom is not yet surrounded by four electron
pairs, convert one or more terminal atom lone pairs to pi
bonds pairs. Take note that not all elements form pi bonds.
Only C, N, O, P, and S do.

o Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons on the free
element and the number of electrons assigned to the atom in the molecule.

Atom’s formal charge = group number − [# of lone electrons − 2 (# of bonding electrons)]

Note:
• the sum of the formal charges must equal an ion’s charge.
• Atoms in molecules (or ions) should have formal charges as small as possible—
as close to zero as possible [principle of electroneutrality].
• A molecule (or ion) is most stable when any negative formal charge resides on
the most electronegative atom.

o Resonance is a way of describing delocalized electrons within certain molecules or

polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed by a single Lewis formula.

Experiments show that NO2- has only one bond type, not one
shorter (and stronger) double bond and one longer single
bond. In order to represent this idea, we use resonance
structures, with a two headed resonance arrow between them.

The actual structure is a hybrid of the two resonance structures.

o Octet Rule. Atoms lose, gain, or share electrons to attain a filled outer level (a noble
gas configuration). An outer level contains eight (an octet of) electrol1ls: two from the
"s" orbital, and six from the three "p " orbitals.
 Exceptions:
1. Fewer than eight
o H at most only 2 electrons (one bond).
o BeH2, only 4 valence electrons around Be (only
two bonds). o Boron compounds, only 6 valence
electrons (three bonds)
2. Expanded Valence
This can only happen if the central element has d-orbitals which means it is from the
3rd period or greater [periods 4, 5, 6…] and can thus be surrounded by more than four
valence pairs in certain compounds. The number of bonds depends on the balance
between the ability of the nucleus to attract electrons and the repulsion between the
pairs.
3. Odd-electron Compounds
A few stable compounds contain an odd number of valence
electrons and thus cannot obey the octet rule. NO, NO2, and ClO2.

• Naming and Writing Inorganic Compounds

1. Ionic Compounds
Let's consider the name for NaCI, sodium chloride. Notice that:
a. The cation is named first followed by the anion.
b. The name of the cation (sodium) is the same as the name of the neutral
metal.
c. The name of the anion (chloride) takes the root of the nonmetal name
(chlorine) and adds the suffix "-ide".
2. Covalent Compounds
Let's consider the name for CO2, carbon dioxide. Notice that:
a. The first element named (carbon) is the one in the lower group number in
the periodic table. (An exception to this rule is when the compound
contains oxygen and a halogen. In this case, the halogen is named first).
If both elements are in the same group, the one with the higher period
number is named first.
b. The second element (oxygen) is named with the suffix "-ide"
c. Greek numerical prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element
in the compound. The first word has a prefix only when more than one
atom of the element is present. The second word always has a numerical
prefix.
 CHEMICAL BONDING II

o The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory states that electron pairs around
the central atom of the molecule arrange themselves to minimize electronic repulsion;
the electrons orient themselves as far as possible from each other.
o Two electron pairs around the central atom lead to a linear arrangement of the
attached atoms; o three indicate a trigonal planar arrangement, and four result
in a tetrahedral geometry.

Image source: https://byjus.com/jee/vsepr-theory/

o Postulates of VSEPR:
a) In polyatomic molecules (i.e. molecules made up of three or more atoms), one
of the constituent atoms is identified as the central atom to which all other
atoms belonging to the molecule are linked.
b) The total number of valence shell electron pairs decides the shape of the
molecule.

c) The electron pairs have a tendency to orient themselves in a way that

minimizes the electron-electron repulsion between them and maximizes the
distance between them.
d) The valence shell can be thought of as a sphere wherein the electron pairs are
localized on the surface in such a way that the distance between them is
maximized.
e) Should the central atom of the molecule be surrounded by bond pairs of
electrons, then, the asymmetrically shaped molecule can be expected.
f) Should the central atom be surrounded by both lone pairs and bond pairs
of electrons, the molecule would tend to have a distorted shape.
g) The VSEPR theory can be applied to each resonance structure of a molecule.
h) The strength of the repulsion is strongest in two lone pairs and weakest in two
bond pairs.
i) If electron pairs around the central atom are closer to each other, they will repel
each other. This results in an increase in the energy of the molecules.
 j) If the electron pairs lie far from each other, the repulsions between them
will be less and eventually, the energy of the molecule will be low.

o Limitations of VSEPR:
a) This theory fails to explain isoelectronic species (i.e. elements having the same
number of electrons). The species may vary in shapes despite having the same
number of electrons.
b) The VSEPR theory does not shed any light on the compounds of transition metals.
The structure of several such compounds cannot be correctly described by this
theory. This is because the VSEPR theory does not take into account the associated
sizes of the substituent groups and the lone pairs that are inactive.
c) Another limitation of VSEPR theory is that it predicts that halides of group 2
elements will have a linear structure, whereas their actual structure is a bent one.

o A molecule is polar if its centers of positive and negative charges do not coincide. A
polar covalent molecule has at least one polar covalent bond.
o The geometry of some molecules causes the molecules to be polar. The polar
covalent bond in H-F causes that molecule to have a dipole moment:

The polar bonds in a linear molecule such as BeF2 cancel each other out so the
molecule has no net dipole:

If water were a linear molecule, it would have no net dipole. However, the bent
geometry of water causes it to have polarity, regions of positive and negative
charge:

o Polar molecules have stronger intermolecular forces than nonpolar molecules and have
higher melting and boiling points as a result.

• Valence Bond Theory and Orbital Hybridization

A model that describes the bonds in molecules as the overlap of a half-filled atomic orbital
of one atom with a half-filled atomic orbital from another atom. The space formed by the
overlapping orbitals can hold two electrons with opposite spins.

o P orbitals can form two types of bonds. Two p orbitals can overlap end-to-end to
form a sigma (σ) bond, which has its highest electron density along the bond axis:

o P orbitals can also overlap side-to-side to form a "pi" (π) bond. In cross
section the pi orbital resembles a p orbital.
 o A double bond, in this picture of bonding, contains one σ bond and one π bond.

o A triple bond contains one σ bond and two π bonds.

• Molecular Orbital Theory and Electron Delocalization

In MO theory, as two atoms come together to form a molecule, the molecule forms new
orbitals that are delocalized over the entire molecule. Each molecular orbital can be
occupied by two electrons and has a particular energy (and shape). We can write electron
configurations for the molecule just as we write electron configurations for atoms. MO theory
is useful for explaining the magnetic and spectral properties of molecules, but it is more
difficult to picture molecular orbitals than the hybrid orbitals of valence bond theory, which
are sometimes called Localized Molecular Orbitals (LMO).

When two hydrogen atoms bond, their 1s orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals:

The σ1s orbital (the bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the atomic orbitals from
which it is composed; the σ1s orbital (the anti bonding orbital) is higher in energy than
the original atomic orbitals. The bonding MO is spread mostly between the nuclei of
the hydrogen atoms; the antibonding MO has a node between the nuclei and when it
is occupied, the molecule is less stable than the separate atoms. Atomic orbitals must
have similar energy and orientation to overlap effectively.

We fill molecular orbitals with electrons the same way we fill atomic orbitals:
a) Orbitals fill in order of increasing energy
b) An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins
c) Electrons do not pair up until all orbitals of equal energy contain one electron.
 Practice Exercise No. 2
CHEMICAL BONDING

Name: __________________________ Date Submitted: __________Score: ______

Yr. & Sec: _______________________ Date Discussed: __________Group No.

Direction: Answer the following questions.

a. sodium chloride
1. Classify each of the following b. magnesium bromide
compounds as ionic or covalent: c. silver cyanide
a. MgCl2 d. ammonium chloride
b. CO2 e. copper(II) oxide
c. H2S f. iron(III) oxide
d. NO2 9. Predict the formula of a compound
e. SiO2 formed from:
f. SO2 a. aluminum and oxygen
g. SO3 b. lithium and sulfur
h. CaCl2 10. Write a suitable formula for:
2. Using Lewis symbols, write an a. silicon dioxide
equation predicting the product of b. sulfur dioxide
the reaction of: c. sodium nitrate
a. Li + Br d. magnesium nitrate
b. Mg + Cl e. ammonium iodide
c. S + H f. ammonium sulfate
d. P + H 11. Contrast ionic and covalent
e. compounds with respect to their:
3. Explain, using Lewis symbols and a. solid state structure.
the octet rule, why helium is so b. relative boiling points.
nonreactive. 12. Give the Lewis structure, predict the
4. Name each of the following ions: geometry, polarity, and water
a. Na+ solubility of each of the following
b. Cu+ compounds:
c. Mg2+ a. NCl3
d. S2- b. CH3OH
e. Cl- c. CS2
f. CO32- 13. The acetate ion exhibits resonance.
g. - Draw two resonance forms of the
5. Name each of the following acetate ion.
compounds: 14. Predict whether the bond formed
a. MgCl2 between each of the following pairs
b. AlCl3 of atoms would be ionic, nonpolar, or
6. Name each of the following covalent polar covalent:
compounds: a. S and O
a. NO2 b. Si and P
b. SO3 c. Na and Cl
c. SO2 d. Na and O
d. SO3 e. Ca and Br
7. Write the formula for each of the 15. BeCl2 has an incomplete octet
following ions: around Be. Draw the Lewis structure
a. the potassium ion of BeCl2.
b. the bromide ion 16. Draw three resonance structures for
c. the sulfate ion the chlorate ion, ClO3-Show formal
d. the nitrate ion charges.
8. Write the correct formula for each of
the following:
 MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

o Stoichiometry, which comes from the Greek words stoicheion (element) and metron
(measure), deals with the quantities of substances consumed and produced in
chemical reactions. The idea of stoichiometry is rooted on the Law of Conservation of
Mass and the use of atomic masses and chemical formula.

o Atomic mass or atomic weight is the mass of the atom expressed in atomic mass units
(amu). One amu is exactly equivalent to 1/12 the mass of one Carbon-12 atom.

o Formula mass or weight is the sum of the atomic mass of each atom in its chemical
formula. The atomic mass (average atomic mass) can be obtained from the periodic
table.

o To get the formula mass of a substance, we multiply the average atomic

mass to the subscript of the atom in the formula and add all values as
shown below:

Ca3(PO4)2
Element Ave Atomic Mass Number of atoms in
the formula
Ca 40.078 amu x 3 = 120.234 amu
P 30.974 amu x 2 = 61.948 amu
O 15.999 amu x (4x2) = 8 = 127.992 amu

Formula weight = 310.17 amu

o The term formula mass or weight although applicable to all substances, is most oftenly
used for ionic compounds. This is because unlike molecular compounds, ionic
compounds exist in three-dimensional structures of ions which are called formula unit.
One formula unit of NaCl for example consists of one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion.

Image source: https://socratic.org/questions/how-to-find-how-many-moles-are-in-an-

ion
o Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic masses in a molecular formula.
o Percentage composition of an element in a compound can be calculated when the
formula weight or molecular weight, atomic mass of the element of interest and the
number of atoms of this element present in the formula are known. This would enable
us to know the percentage by mass contributed by the specific element in the
compound. The percentage composition can be computed using the equation below:

o For example, the Percentage composition of Carbon in the example chemical

formula of
glucose (C6H12O6) above can be computed as: ( )( . )
% = .
% =

o To express the number of atoms, ions or molecules in a sample, the SI unit mole is used. This
comes from the Latin word moles which means “a mass”. Operationally, this is defined as the
amount of matter that contains as many particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of
isotopically pure Carbon-12. Experimental determination of this value shows that it is equal to
6.0221421 x 1023. This value is named after an Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro hence,
called Avogadros number (NA).
 = .
= .
− = .

Amadeo Avogadro
Image source: http://www.sapaviva.com/amedeo-avogadro/

o Molar mass (g/mol) (Μ or Greek capital letter mu) is the mass of a substance in 1 mole:
o The mass of a single atom of an element (amu) is numerically equal to the mass
(gram) of 1 mole of the element. . =

o The formula weight of a substance (amu) is numerically equal to the mass (gram) of
1 mole of that substance. . =

o Molar mass (Μ) and avogadros number (NA) are used to convert units of the
amount of substances.

Image modified from: Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., Woodward, P. M.,
& Stoltzfus, M. (2015). Chemistry: The central science.

o The empirical formula of a substance shows the relative number of atoms of each element it
contains. This is also called the simplest formula. This can be determined through
observation and experiments which give the number of moles of each element in the sample
tested.
o Experimental determination of the molar mass of the sample compound and comparing to the
molar mass of the empirical formula will then lead to its molecular formula. The molecular
formula reflects the total number of atoms in the compound.
Chemical Reactions are symbolically represented through chemical equations. A chemical
equation contains the starting material in the reaction (reactants) and the resulting new
substance/s
 (products). These can be conventionally found at the left and right of the arrow, respectively. The
chemical equation can be written using the following:
The symbol of an element or the formula of a molecule.
Symbols such as:
“+” - “reacts with” or “and”;
→
“ ” - “to yield” or “to produce”;
“↑” - “evolution of gas”;
”↓” - “formation of precipitate”;
“∆” - “heat is applied”;

“ “ - “reversible reaction”
Physical States of the substance such as solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) and aqueous (aq) if the
substance is in solution.
Coefficients which corresponds to the number of molecules of each of the substances in the
reaction.
1 Balancing Chemical equations uses coefficients added to the reactant and product side when
necessary.
To balance chemical equation we have to follow the steps below:

1. Remember to write the correct formula of each element and compounds. Note that diatomic molecules
are written with a subscript of 2 such as H2, N2, F2, O2, I2, Cl2, Br2. Phosphorus in its elemental form is P4
while sulfur is S8.

5. Identify the number of atoms on each side and compare them. Fe(s) +
→
O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
Atoms Reactant Product
Fe 1 2
O 2 3

o Try different coefficients to balance all the atoms. Balance the compounds with several elements in them
first and the uncombined elements last.

→
Fe(s) + O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
o In this case, a coefficient is added to iron (III) oxide, to be followed by a coefficient to be added to the
free elements Fe and O2 to balance the equation:

→
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
o In case of a presence of polyatomic ions which are not separated during the reaction, count them as if
they are monoatomic ions. For example:

→
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + KOH Ca(OH)2(s) + KNO3(aq)
Atoms Reactant Product
Ca 1 1
NO3- 2 1
K 1 1
OH 1 2

We do not need to count nitrogen and oxygen in nitrate ion separately. Nitrate ion is counted as
one entity. To balance the reaction a coefficient 2 is added to KOH and KNO3 to balance the
component ions on both side of the equation.

→
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KOH Ca(OH)2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
 (products). These can be conventionally found at the left and right of the arrow, respectively. The
chemical equation can be written using the following:
The symbol of an element or the formula of a molecule.
Symbols such as:
“+” - “reacts with” or “and”;
→
“ ” - “to yield” or “to produce”;
“↑” - “evolution of gas”;
”↓” - “formation of precipitate”;
“∆” - “heat is applied”;

“ “ - “reversible reaction”
Physical States of the substance such as solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) and aqueous (aq) if the
substance is in solution.
Coefficients which corresponds to the number of molecules of each of the substances in the
reaction.
1 Balancing Chemical equations uses coefficients added to the reactant and product side when
necessary.
To balance chemical equation we have to follow the steps below:

1. Remember to write the correct formula of each element and compounds. Note that diatomic molecules
are written with a subscript of 2 such as H2, N2, F2, O2, I2, Cl2, Br2. Phosphorus in its elemental form is P4
while sulfur is S8.

5. Identify the number of atoms on each side and compare them. Fe(s) +
→
O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
Atoms Reactant Product
Fe 1 2
O 2 3

o Try different coefficients to balance all the atoms. Balance the compounds with several elements in them
first and the uncombined elements last.

→
Fe(s) + O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
o In this case, a coefficient is added to iron (III) oxide, to be followed by a coefficient to be added to the
free elements Fe and O2 to balance the equation:

→
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
o In case of a presence of polyatomic ions which are not separated during the reaction, count them as if
they are monoatomic ions. For example:

→
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + KOH Ca(OH)2(s) + KNO3(aq)
Atoms Reactant Product
Ca 1 1
NO3- 2 1
K 1 1
OH 1 2

We do not need to count nitrogen and oxygen in nitrate ion separately. Nitrate ion is counted as
one entity. To balance the reaction a coefficient 2 is added to KOH and KNO3 to balance the
component ions on both side of the equation.

→
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KOH Ca(OH)2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
 The following are common decomposition reaction:
1 →
Hydrates Salt + H2O
→
CuSO4·5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
1. →
Metal Chlorates Metallic Chloride + O2 2KClO3
→
2 KCl + 3O2
2. →
Metal Oxides (Hg, Ag, Pt and Au) Free metal + O2 2HgO
→
2Hg + O2
→
3. Metal Carbonates Metallic Oxide + CO2
→
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
5. →
Metal Bicarbonates Metal Carbonates + CO2 + H2O
→
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Except if you are dealing with group two bicarbonates which can readily decompose into its
metal oxide upon continuous heating of the resulting metal carbonates. Take for example
calcium carbonate:

→
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
→
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Hence a general equation will be:

→
Ca(HCO3)2 CaO+ 2CO2 + H2O
The characteristic small size of the ion bearing the charge in group 2 ions make the
carbonates less stable than group 1 carbonates. This unstability is due to the high polarizing
power of the group 2 cation to the carbonate anion therefore the easier to break the bond
releasing carbon dioxide.

Image source: https://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group1/compounds.html

o In a single replacement reaction an element replaces an ion rom a compound thereby producing a
new compound and a free element.

→
A+CD C+AD
The completion of this reaction is guided by the activity series which shows the relative
reactivity of the elements in reference to hydrogen and the other metals coming before or after
them in the series.
 Image caption: The activity series.
Image source: http://www.biochemhelp.com/activity-series-of-metals-and-non-metals.html

Generally, an element (metal or halogen) can displace any element appearing below them in the
series due to their lower reactivity. Single displacement reactions include hydrogen displacement,
metal displacement and halogen displacement as shown below.
▪
Metal displacement
→
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
▪
Hydrogen displacement
→
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
▪ →
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
• The latter is true for metals such as Rb, K, Na and Ca
▪
Halogen displacement
→
Cl2 + 2KBr Br2 + 2KCl
o Double displacement reaction occurs when two ions are exchanged between two compounds
resulting to the formation of two new substances.

→
AB+CD AD+CB
Some example of double displacement reactions are neutralization reactions and precipitation
reactions.

▪
Neutralization reactions involve the reaction between acids and bases to yield salt and water.
→
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Neutralization reactions between an acid and salts of carbonates, bicarbonates,
sulfites and sulfide lead to formation of gases

→
Na2CO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
→
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)↑

▪
Precipitation reactions involve the reaction between ions in solution to
produce an insoluble solid called precipitate. The formation of precipitate
depends on its solubility in the solvent, usually water. This can be referred
from the solubility rules table shown below.
 Solubility Rules for Common Compounds in water at 250C

For example, mixing the aqueous solution of soluble salts potassium chloride (KCl) and silver nitrate
(AgNO3) results to the formation of a white silver chloride (AgCl) precipitate and potassium nitrate
(KNO3) in solution.

→
KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)↓
o Combustion reaction is a reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen gas to produce
carbon dioxide, water and releases energy in the form of heat and light. Take for
instance the combustion of one component of natural gas, butane, used for cooking
when you camp in the mountains.
→
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O
o The balanced chemical equation can be used to determine the number of moles or particles of the
reactants and products present in the reaction.

Equation N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Molecules 1 molecule 3 molecules → molecules
Mass (amu) 28.01 amu 6.05 amu → 34.06 amu
Amount (mol) 1 mol 3 mol → 2 mol
Mass (g) 28.01 g 6.05 g → 34.06 g

The coefficients from the equation shown the relationship of each of the substances in the
reaction: ̂

−̂ means “stoichiometrically equivalent”

−̂ −̂

o This stoichiometric relationship or ratio (SMR) can be used to convert between quantities of reactants
and products in the reaction.

Image source: Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., Woodward, P. M., & Stoltzfus,
M. (2015). Chemistry: The central science.

o The reactant which will produce the lesser amount of product will be the limiting reagent.
o The amount of product calculated using the amount of limiting reagent used in the reaction is
called the theoretical yield.
o The amount of product collected after the reaction is the actual yield.
o Several factors contribute to the difference between the theoretical and actual yields. These
include: o Some reactants did not react
o Some reactants react differently than what is desired
o Not all products are recovered from the reaction mixture
To relate the actual and theoretical yield, we compute for the percentage yield of the reaction with the
formula:
 Practice Exercise No. 3
MASS RELATIONSHIPS

Name: __________________________ Date Submitted: __________ Score: ______

Yr. & Sec: _______________________

I. Direction: For each of the following chemical reactions, write a balanced chemical
equation. Be sure to show the state of each reactant and product.

1. Solid mercury(II) oxide breaks down when heated, forming the elements mercury
and oxygen.
2. Sodium metal reacts with water vapor in air to form solid sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen.
3. In the first step of refining zinc metal from its zinc sulfide ore, the ore is heated in
the presence of oxygen. The products are solid zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide gas.
4. The next step of refining zinc involves heating the zinc oxide in the presence of
carbon. This reaction produces zinc vapor and carbon monoxide gas.
5. Certain pollutants in the air react with water vapor to form acids. For example,
sulfur trioxide reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid.
6. Solid calcium carbonate is commonly used in antacids because it reacts with the
hydrochloric acid found in the stomach. The products of this reaction are aqueous
calcium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water.
II. Direction: Examine each of the following pairs of potential reactants. If a reaction occurs,
write the balanced equation. If no reaction occurs, write NR.
1. calcium and water
2. magnesium and water
3. rubidium and lithium chloride
4. potassium and aluminum oxide
5. silver and calcium nitrate
6. fluorine and potassium iodide
7. magnesium bromide and chlorine
8. copper and iron(III) sulfate
III. Direction: Match each example of a chemical reaction in Column A to the type(s) listed
in Column B. List all types from Column B that apply.

Column A Column B
_______1. Aluminum lawn furniture a. combustion
becomes coated with a layer
of
aluminum oxide when it sits
out in the air.
_______2. Chlorine gas is bubbled b. decomposition
through a calcium bromide
solution. The solution turns
brown, the color of bromine.
_______3. Lime is added to acid water c. double-
in a lake. Water and a salt replacement
form.
_______4. Propane is a common d. single-
household fuel. When replacement
burned, water and carbon
dioxide are produced.
_______5. Steel wool burns, forming an e. synthesis
iron oxide.
 _______6. When an electric current is
passed through molten
potassium bromide,
potassium and bromine
form.
_______7. When solutions of sodium
iodide and lead nitrate are
combined, a yellow solid
forms.
IV. Direction: Solve the following word problems.

1. A sample of a compound contains 7.89 g potassium, 2.42 g carbon, and 9.69 g

oxygen. Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of this compound, which
has a molar mass of 198.22 g/mol.
2. A dry-cleaning solvent (146.99 g/mol) that contains C, H, and Cl is suspected to be a
cancer-causing agent. When a 0.250-g sample was studied by combustion analysis,
0.451 g of CO2 and 0.0617 g of H2O formed. Find the molecular formula.
3. When powdered zinc is heated with sulfur, a violent reaction occurs, and zinc
sulfide forms:
→
Zn(s) + S8(s) ZnS(s) [unbalanced]
4. Some of the reactants also combine with oxygen in air to form zinc oxide and
sulfur dioxide. When 83.2 g of Zn reacts with 52.4 g of S8, 104.4 g of ZnS forms. What is
the percent yield of ZnS?

5. Determine the empirical formulas of the following compounds:

0.039 mol of iron atoms combined with 0.052 mol of oxygen atoms
0.903 g of phosphorus combined with 6.99 g of bromine
A hydrocarbon with 79.9 mass % carbon
6. Cortisol (362.47 g/mol), one of the major steroid hormones, is used in the
treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Cortisol is 69.6% C, 8.34% H, and 22.1% O by mass.
What is its molecular formula?
7. Menthol (156.3 g/mol), a strong-smelling substance used in cough drops, is a
compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When 0.1595 g of menthol was subjected
to combustion analysis, it produced 0.449 g of CO2 and 0.184 g of H2O.
What is menthol’s molecular formula?
8. How many mercury atoms are present in 1.0 x 10 –10 moles of mercury?
9. How many moles of sodium correspond to 1.0 x 1015 atoms of sodium?
10. How many grams are contained in 3.00 mol of carbon atoms?
11. What is the mass in grams of 1.00 mol of nitrogen atoms?
12. Calculate the number of moles corresponding to:
0.10 g Ca
4.00 g Fe
2.00 kg N2
13. What is the mass, in grams, of 15.0 mol of carbon?
14. Calculate the number of atoms in 15.0 g of carbon.
15. Calculate the number of moles corresponding to:
b. a. 15.0 g NH3 b.16.0 g O2
16. Calculate the mass in grams corresponding to:
a. 2.00 mol CH4
b. 0.400 mol Ca(NO3)2
17. How many grams are required to have 0.100 mol of each of the following?
a. C6H12O6 (glucose)
b. NaCl
18. How many moles are in 50.0 g of each of the following substances?
a. Sr(OH)2
b. LiNO3
19. Complete, then balance, each of the following equations:
→
Li(s) + O2(g)
→
Ca(s) + N2(g)
→
Al(s) + S(s)
20. Balance each of the following equations:
 →
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g)
→
C6H6(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
→
I4O9(s) + I2O6(s) I2(s) + O2(g)
→
KClO3(s) KCl(s) + O2(g)
→
C6H12O6(s) C2H6O(l) + CO2(g)
21. Write a balanced equation for each of the following reactions:
Sulfur, present as an impurity in coal, is burned in oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) reacts with glass (SiO2) in the process of etching to produce
silicon tetrafluoride and water.
22. How many grams of Al will react with 3.00 moles of O2?
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
23. A 3.5-g sample of water reacts with PCl3 according to the following equation:
3H2O(l) + PCl3(g) → H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
How many grams of H3PO3 are produced?
 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

o Soluble ionic compounds are called electrolytes since they dissociate into charged
ions
as they dissolve in water.
o A covalent compound does not dissociate and remain as uncharged molecules in
solution
hence the term non-electrolyte.
o An insoluble ionic compound contains electrostatic attraction between its ions that
are too strong for the water molecules to overcome.

o Water is a polar molecule; it has a partially negative pole that attracts cations, and a
partially positive pole that attracts anions. The oxygen atom attracts electrons more
strongly than hydrogen, so each O-H bond in the water molecule is a polar covalent
bond; the electrons spend more time near the oxygen atom than around the
hydrogen atoms. The shape of the electron cloud around oxygen, pushes the
hydrogen atoms away from a linear orientation to a bent configuration. It is this bent
configuration that gives water its positive and negative poles.

o Precipitation Reaction. When two aqueous ionic compounds are mixed, a

precipitate (s) may form.
o There are three ways you may see this reaction written.
o Molecular equation. Molecular equations show all reactants and products as
undissociated compounds. Historically, this equation would have been called
a
double displacement reaction.
o Total ionic equation. Total ionic equations show all the ions, even if they are not
involved in a reaction (spectator ions.)
o Net ionic equation. Net ionic equations eliminate spectator ions and record
only ions involved in precipitation.

Image source: Silberberg, M. S. (2010). Principles of general chemistry. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill.

o We can predict which combinations of ions will precipitate out from aqueous
solutions by using solubility rules summarized below.
o Acids and Bases. Based from the Arrhenius definition, an acid is a substance that
produces protons (H+ ions) when dissolved in water, and a base is a substance
that produces hydroxide (OH-) ions when dissolved in water.
o Acids are a special case of covalent molecules that contain hydrogen and
interact so strongly with water that they dissociate into ions.

o The H+ ion is simply a bare proton. It is an extremely small volume of positive

charge and associates strongly to the negative pole of water molecules. Often an
aqueous H+ ion is written as H30+ to indicate this strong association:

o Not all bases contain OH- as part of their structure. Bases may remove a proton from
water producing hydroxide ion. Ammonia (NH3) is a base because it obtains a proton
from water leaving OH- ions in solution:

o Soluble metal oxides act as strong bases in solution because the oxide ion reacts
quickly with water to form hydroxide:

o Neutralization Reaction. Reaction of an acid and a base produces water and a salt
(on evaporation) in a neutralization reaction. Can also be written as total ionic
equations, net ionic equations and molecular equations.

o The Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases recognizes the proton-transfer nature
of
acid-base reactions. They defined an acid as a molecule (or ion) that donates a
proton, and a base as a molecule (or ion) that accepts a proton.
o Acid-base reactions may form a gaseous product.
Acid-Base titration. We can determine the concentration of an unknown acid (or
base) by titration with a base (or acid) of known concentration. Titrations depend on
indicators to indicate the point at which neutralization of the acid and base occurs.
Indicators are themselves weak acids and are useful in that they are one color in
their acidic form, and a different color in their basic form.
o Oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions. When two atoms stick together to form a
chemical bond, one atom may attract the electrons more strongly than the other atom.
The electrons spend more time around the atom with the stronger attraction, and if
this change in the distribution of electrons occurs to a great enough extent, we can
say electrons transfer from one atom to another. Oxidation is the loss of electrons,
reduction is the gain
of electrons.
o The oxidation number refers to the charge an atom would have if the electrons that
bond two atoms together are assigned to the element which attracts the electrons
more strongly. For covalent compounds, the oxidation number is not an accurate
description of the electron distribution because the electrons are only partially
transferred from one atom to another and so do not carry a full positive or negative
charge.
Image source: Silberberg, M. S. (2010). Principles of general chemistry. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill.

o Most elements are more versatile than the ones listed above. Transition metals may
have as many as five possible oxidation numbers. Metals tend to lose electrons, so
their
oxidation numbers are positive. With a few exceptions, an element's group number
in the Periodic Table is its highest possible oxidation number.
o An atom which is oxidized undergoes an increase in its oxidation number; an atom
which is reduced undergoes a decrease (or reduction) in its oxidation number.
o Redox reactions can be balanced using the method summarized below.
1. Assign oxidation numbers to all atoms.
2. Identify the oxidized and reduced atoms (atoms whose oxidation numbers
change).
3. Make the number of electrons lost equal the number of electrons gained
by multiplying by appropriate factors; use the factors as balancing
coefficients.
4. Complete the balancing by inspection.
o RedOx Titration. We can determine an unknown concentration of a reducing
agent by titrating with a known concentration of an oxidizing agent (or vice versa).
Direction:
1. Which of the following substances would you expect to be insoluble in water?
a. barium hydroxide i. lead iodide
b. hydrochloric acid j. ammonium acetate
c. lithium sulfate k. potassium cyanide
d. ammonium nitrate l. lead acetate
e. silver chloride m. strontium hydroxide
f. lithium carbonate n. ammonium nitrate
g. calcium carbonate o. silver nitrate
h. barium sulfate p. cadmium acetate
2. Complete the following precipitation reactions with balanced molecular, total ionic, and
net ionic equations:
a. CaCl2(aq) + Cs3PO4(aq)
b. Na2S(aq) + ZnSO4(aq)
3. When each of the following pairs of aqueous solutions is mixed, does a precipitation
reaction occur? If so, write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic equations:
a. Potassium carbonate + barium hydroxide
b. Aluminum nitrate + sodium phosphate
4. Complete the following acid-base reactions with balanced molecular, total ionic, and net
ionic equations:
a. Cesium hydroxide(aq) + nitric acid(aq)
b. Calcium hydroxide(aq) + acetic acid(aq)
5. If it requires 50. mL of 0.030 M HCI to titrate a 100. mL sample of potassium hydroxide
to the equivalence point, how many moles of potassium hydroxide are in the sample?
6. Lactic acid, HC3H503, is responsible for the sour taste in out-of-date milk. 57.04 mL of
0.09827 M NaOH is required to neutralize a 50.00 mL lactic acid solution. What is the
molarity of the lactic acid solution?
7. Give the oxidation number of sulfur in the following:
a. SOCl2
b. H2S2
c. H2SO3
d. Na2S
8. In the following reactions, identify the element oxidized, the element reduced, the
oxidizing agent, and the reducing agent.
→
a. Sn + 2NaOH Na2SnO2 + H2
→
b. 2KCI + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 K2SO4 + MnSO4 + CI2 + 2H2O
9. Solutions of hydrogen peroxide are sold over-the-counter as topical antiseptics. 30.0 mL
of H202 is first acidified and then titrated to a pale pink with 26.5 mL of 0.200 M KMnO 4
solution.
- + → +
H202 + Mn04 + H O2 + Mn2 + H20
a. Balance the net oxidation-reduction reaction above.
b. What is the molarity of the H202 solution?
c. If the density of the solution is 1.00 g/mL, what is the percent H202 by mass of the
hydrogen peroxide solution?
10. Liquid bleach is normally sold as 5% solutions of sodium hypochlorite, NaOCI. Quality
control analysis of the NaOCI content of bleach solutions can be carried out using an
iodometric titration. The hypochlorite solution is treated with an excess of iodide solution:
→
OCI-+I-+H+ CI-+I2+H20
The resulting iodine is titrated with a standard sodium thiosulfite, Na2S203 solution:
2- → - 2-
S2O3 + I2 + H20 I + SO4
a. Balance each of the oxidation-reduction reactions above.
b. A 100 mL bleach sample is treated with an iodide solution and then titrated with
47.24 mL of a 0.347 M Na2S203 solution. What is the molarity of the bleach
solution?
c. Assume the density of the solution is 1.00 g/mL, what is the percent NaOCI by
mass in the bleach solution?