Hospitals,Monastries & Medical facilities of Khmer

Kings in the Mahayana Tradition

Dr Uday Dokras

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 Hospitals,Monastries & Medical facilities of Khmer
Kings in the Mahayana Tradition

INTRODUCTION

Who was the greatest Cambodian kings ? I’m sure that would depend very greatly on whom you
were to ask; but I can offer a few candidates (in date order):

 Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire.

 Suryavarman II, who led the Empire at its peak, and who was responsible for the
construction of Angkor Wat (Angkor Wat is kind of a big deal).
 Jayavarman VII, arguably the most powerful of the Khmer kings, and the one who first
instituted Buddhism as the national religion, and who built the most monuments.

Devarāja, in ancient Cambodia, the cult of the “god-king” established early in the 9th century ad
by Jayavarman II, founder of the Khmer empire of Angkor. For centuries, the cult provided the
religious basis of the royal authority of the Khmer kings. The devarāja cult grew out of both
Hindu and indigenous traditions. King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was generally
considered Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a prince under the
previous kings. According to Nietupski, P., 2019. Medieval Khmer Society: The Life and Times
of Jayavarman VII (ca. 1120–1218). ASIANetwork Exchange: A Journal for Asian Studies in the Liberal
Arts, 26(1), pp.33–74. DOI: http://doi.org/10.16995/ane.280--Jayavarman VII is one of the best known
Cambodian “Angkor” leaders, in part because he was able to unite the numerous small,
fragmented Khmer Cambodian and Cham kingdoms of the day. He ruled his consolidated Khmer
kingdom from 1181–1218, bringing the decentralized Khmer and Cham states together through
political and military alliances. Religion, especially India-derived Brahmanism, or “Hinduism,”
Mahāyāna Buddhism, and local Cambodian religion, was a key component of Khmer society.
Over time different Khmer rulers endorsed one or more of the religious systems to their own
advantage. Jayavarman VII was especially committed to Mahāyāna Buddhism, evidenced by the
remarkable extent of his support for Buddhist monuments, and attested in many hundreds of
Sanskrit inscriptions. This essay tells the story of Jayavarman VII, a political and military leader
who used Indian religious visions and prototypes as models to build a remarkable cultural
edifice.

He is considered as a forceful and productive kings of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire

of Angkor (reigning 1181–c. 1220). He expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent and
engaged in a building program that yielded numerous temples (including Angkor Thom),
highways, rest houses, and hospitals. King Jayavarman VII saw himself as a warrior for his
subjects. As a result, his rule was marked by its tolerance and his drive to create a place of safety

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and paradise for his subjects. He went on to make Mahayana Buddhism the state religion,
breaking with 400 years of Khmer Hinduism.

Early life

Jayavarman was born into the royal family of Angkor. He married a very religious and strong-
minded princess named Jayarajadevi, who exerted an important influence on him, both before he
gained the throne and during the early years of his reign. Following her death he married her
older sister, a very pious and learned woman whom he had previously installed as the head
professor in an important Buddhist monastery.

Though practically nothing is known of Jayavarman’s childhood and youth, it is clear that during
his late 30s and early 40s he settled in the neighbouring kingdom of Champa, in what is now the
central region of Vietnam. At the time of the death of his father, King Dharanindravarman II
(ruled 1150–60), Jayavarman was engaged in a military campaign in Champa, and, after the
accession of his brother (or possibly his cousin), Yasovarman II (ruled 1160–66), he chose to
remain there, returning to Cambodia only when he received word that a palace rebellion was in
progress. Although Jayavarman arrived at Angkor too late to prevent the murder of Yasovarman
and the accession of the rebel Tribhuvanadityavarman (ruled 1166–77), he decided to remain in
his homeland and to await an opportunity to assert his own claim to the throne.

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Some 12 years later, when Jayavarman was in his late 50s, that opportunity came as a result of a
Cham invasion, which brought about the demise of Tribhuvanadityavarman, the sacking of
Angkor, and its subjection to foreign rule. In this situation Jayavarman organized a struggle for
independence and in less than five years’ time succeeded in driving out the invaders and
establishing his hegemony over all his Cambodian rivals. Finally in 1181, at the age of 61, he
was crowned king of a reconstituted Khmer empire and began a brilliant reign of more than 30
years, during which he brought the empire to its zenith, both in terms of territorial expansion and
of royal architecture and construction.
Jayavarman’s building program

During his reign Jayavarman continued his military activities, bringing Champa, southern Laos,
and portions of the Malay Peninsula and Burma under his control. But increasingly he devoted
his energies and organizational capacities to the kind of religious and religio-political
construction projects that had been carried on by his royal predecessors. He built a large number
of awesome new temples, including the Bayon, a distinctively Mahāyāna Buddhist central
pyramid temple designed to serve as the primary locus of the royal cult and also as his own
personal mausoleum; personal funerary temples of the Mahāyāna type, which were dedicated to
his mother and father; and a series of provincial temples, which housed reduced replicas of the
Royal Buddha—i.e., Jayavarman represented with the attributes of the Buddha, the original of
which had been set up in the Bayon. He rebuilt the city of Angkor, now known as Angkor Thom,
and rebuilt and extended the system of highways, which radiated outward from the Bayon and
the royal palace and reached far into the provinces. In addition, he constructed more than 100
rest houses along these roads and built more than 100 hospitals, which he dispersed throughout
his kingdom and placed under the protection of Baiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabhā, the Great Buddha
of Healing.

Jayavarman seems to have been obsessed with the need for rapid and extensive construction. For
example, the less than careful workmanship evident in the temples attributed to Jayavarman’s
reign vividly points to the great haste with which they were built. Some scholars have suggested
that the almost frantic sense of urgency associated with Jayavarman’s works derived from the
fact that, having begun his reign at a relatively advanced age, he felt that his time was short and
had to be utilized to the fullest. Others have suggested that Jayavarman’s concern to carry
through such a vast program of largely Buddhist-oriented construction was greatly encouraged
by Jayarajadevi and her sister, both of whom dedicated a tremendous amount of energy toward
gaining support for Buddhism and specifically for building Buddhist temples. And finally, if
scholars are correct in their surmise that Jayavarman suffered from the dread disease of leprosy,
his concern to mitigate his sin and suffering through the accumulation of great merit may have
given a still further impetus to his piety and zealousness. Whatever his true motivations,
Jayavarman succeeded during his lifetime in creating a legacy that few monarchs in history
(Khmer or otherwise) have been able to equal; he was more than 90 years old when he died.

Modern reputation

Despite the importance of Jayavarman VII in the history of the Angkor kingdom, no memory of
him was preserved in the later Cambodian chronicles. In modern times, however, as
archaeological studies generated popular interest in his reign, Jayavarman VII became a kind of

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paradigmatic national hero, who was credited not only with establishing the full greatness of the
Cambodian nation but also with bringing into being a welfare state that was motivated by
Buddhism and dedicated to serving both the spiritual and the physical needs of the Cambodian
people. Scholars, however, have sought to maintain a more balanced view of Jayavarman,
recognizing the obvious immensity of his accomplishments but also taking account of the fact
that the overweening demands that he placed on the material and human resources of his
kingdom may have been a major factor in its subsequent loss of creativity and its eventual
demise. His government built many projects including hospitals, highways, rest houses, and
temples. With Buddhism as his motivation, King Jayavarman VII is credited with introducing a
welfare state that served the physical and spiritual needs of the Khmer people.

VIRTUE in BUDDHISM

The Buddhist king Ashoka built pillars throughout the Indian

subcontinent inscribed with edicts promoting Buddhist moral virtues and precepts.

Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of
the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism
is Śīla or sīla (Pāli). Śīla in Buddhism is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path, and is
a code of conduct that embraces a commitment to harmony and self-restraint with the principal
motivation being nonviolence, or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described
as virtue,[2] moral discipline and precept.
Sīla is an internal, aware, and intentional ethical behavior, according to one's commitment to the
path of liberation. It is an ethical compass within self and relationships, rather than what is
associated with the English word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and external
constraint).
Sīla is one of the three practices foundational to Buddhism and the non-sectarian Vipassana
movement; sīla, samādhi, and paññā as well as the Theravadin foundations of sīla, dāna,

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and bhavana. It is also the second pāramitā. Sīla is also wholehearted commitment to what is
wholesome. Two aspects of sīla are essential to the training: right "performance" (caritta), and
right "avoidance" (varitta). Honoring the precepts of sīla is considered a "great gift" (mahadana)
to others, because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It means the
practitioner poses no threat to another person's life, property, family, rights, or well-being.
Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most
scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of Buddhist scriptures, and the use of
anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies, to justify claims about the nature of
Buddhist ethics.
The source for the ethics of Buddhists around the world are the Three Jewels of
the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The Buddha is seen as the discoverer of liberating knowledge
and hence the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's path and the
truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones (ariya), who practice the
Dhamma and have attained some knowledge and can thus provide guidance and preserve the
teachings. Having proper understanding of the teachings is vital for proper ethical conduct. The
Buddha taught that right view was a necessary prerequisite for right conduct, sometimes also
referred to as right intention.
The Four Noble Truths
The foundation of Buddhist ethics is the Four Noble Truths, which are:

 dukkha (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence

with each rebirth;
 samudaya (origin, cause) of this dukkha is the "craving, desire or attachment";
 nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire,
and attachment";
 magga (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the means to end this dukkha.
The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics, the need for
liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with
suffering (dukkha). Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead
to liberation (Nirvana). The way to put an end to craving is by following the Noble Eightfold
Path taught by the Buddha, which includes the ethical elements of right speech, right action and
right livelihood. From the point of view of the Four Noble Truths, an action is seen as ethical if it
is conductive to the elimination of dukkha. Understanding the truth of dukkha in life allows one
to analyze the factors for its arising, that is craving, and allows us to feel compassion and
sympathy for others. Comparing oneself with others and then applying the Golden Rule is said to
follow from this appreciation of dukkh.[ From the Buddhist perspective, an act is also moral if it
promotes spiritual development by conforming to the Eightfold Path and leading to Nirvana. In
Mahayana Buddhism, an emphasis is made on the liberation of all beings and bodhisattvas are
believed to work tirelessly for the liberation of all.
Karma and rebirth

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 The bhavacakra (wheel of life) shows the realms of karmic rebirth, at
its hub are the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion.
The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of karma, often understood to
involve rebirth. Karma literally means "action" and can also refer to the consequences of
action. Suffering, both in the present and the future, is perpetuated by wrong action and ended by
right action. The Buddha is recorded to have stated that right view consisted in believing that
(among other things): "'there is fruit and ripening of deeds well done or ill done': what one does
matters and has an effect on one's future; 'there is this world, there is a world beyond': this world
is not unreal, and one goes on to another world after death" (MN 117, Maha-cattarisaka Sutta).
Although the doctrine of rebirth has been avowed by many Buddhists, it is rejected by many East
Asian Buddhists, and some scholars regard it as inessential to Buddhist ethics.
In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has moral
consequences on the actor. The core of karma is the mental intention, and hence the Buddha
stated 'It is intention (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed one acts through body,
speech, or mind'. Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma, but having hurtful
thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as conditioning future
actions and circumstances – the fruit (Phala) of one's present actions, including the condition and
place of the actor's future life circumstances (though these can also be influenced by other
random factors). One's past actions are said to mold one's consciousness and to leave seeds (Bīja)
which later ripen in the next life. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle,
though one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds.
The root of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three good
roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and three negative roots (greed, hatred
and delusion). Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "merit" (puñña – fruitful,
auspicious) and obtaining merit (good karma) is an important goal of lay Buddhist practice.
The early Buddhist texts mention three 'bases for effecting karmic fruitfulness' (puñña-kiriya-
vatthus): giving (dana), moral virtue (sila) and meditation (bhāvanā). ] One's state of mind while
performing good actions is seen as more important than the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is
seen as the most meritorious "field of merit". Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results,
though one's regret and attempts to make up for it can ameliorate these results.

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Precepts
The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is The Five Precepts which are common to all
Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" (pañca-silani) are not commands but a set
of voluntary commitments or guidelines, to help one live a life in which one is happy, without
worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent suffering and to weaken
the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral instructions which the
Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as pertains to sexual conduct
introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of another person if it involves
uncommitted relationship.When one "goes for refuge" to the Buddha's teachings one formally
takes the five precepts, which are.

1. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;

2. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
3. I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
4. I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
5. I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which
are the basis for heedlessness.
Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha,
though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments. Keeping each precept is
said to develop its opposite positive virtue. Abstaining from killing for example develops
kindness and compassion, while abstaining from stealing develops non-attachment. The precepts
have been connected with utilitarianist, deontological and virtue approaches to ethics.[32] They
have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature, and some scholars
argue they can complement the concept of human rights.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-
harming (Pāli and Sanskrit: ahiṃsa). The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself with
others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others. Compassion and a belief in karmic retribution[
form the foundation of the precepts.
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have
interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital
punishment, suicide, abortion and euthanasia. The second precept prohibits theft. The third
precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms
such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept involves falsehood
spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip. The
fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means. Early Buddhist texts
nearly always condemn alcohol,[47] and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. In practice
however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many
Buddhist majority countries. Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but
are generally permissive. In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival
movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts play a major role in
Buddhist organizations.

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There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific
religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are
modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is
made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight
Precepts are:

6. "I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods
after noon, and not until dawn the following day)
7. "I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and
shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
8. "I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."
Novice-monks use the ten precepts while fully ordained Buddhist monks also have a larger set of
monastic precepts, called the Prātimokṣa (227 rules for monks in the Theravādin recension).
Monks are supposed to be celibate and are also traditionally not allowed to touch money. The
rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns is outlined in the Vinaya. The precise content of
the scriptures on vinaya (vinayapiṭaka) differ slightly according to different schools, and
different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to the vinaya.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another common set of moral guidelines are the Bodhisattva vows and
the Bodhisattva Precepts or the "Ten Great Precepts". The Bodhisattva Precepts which is derived
from the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra include the Five precepts with some other additions such
as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist above and beyond the
existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts. The Brahmajala Sutra also includes a list of 48
minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of weapons, teaching for the sake of
profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non Mahayana Dharma. These precepts
have no parallel in Theravāda Buddhism.
Ten wholesome actions-Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early
Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: dasa-
kusala-kammapatha, Sanskrit: daśa-kuśala-karmapatha) which are "in accordance
with Dharma."
These are divided into three bodily actions (kaya kamma), four verbal actions (vaci kamma) and
three mental actions (mano kamma) all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to decline
while skillful qualities grow".[62] These ten paths are discussed in suttas such as Majjhima
Nikaya MN 41 (Sāleyyaka Sutta), and MN 114
Bodily actions:

1. "Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword",
"They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
2. "They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth or
belongings of others from village or wilderness."
3. "They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who
have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as
guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on principle,
or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one who has
been garlanded as a token of betrothal."

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Verbal actions:

1. "A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a family
meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please, mister, say
what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say 'I know.' Not
seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't deliberately lie for
the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason."
2. "They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in another
so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided,
supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote
harmony."
3. "They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear,
lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
4. "They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line
with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable,
reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."
Mental actions:

1. "It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others: 'Oh,
if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving intentions: 'May
these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and happy!'"
2. "It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are
loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart full of
kindness."
3. "It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings.
There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties
to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And there are ascetics and
brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who describe the afterlife after
realizing it with their own insight.'"
These ten paths are also commonly taught in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as
foundational ethical teachings
Bases of meritorious actions
Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action"
(Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu). As noted by Nyanatiloka Thera, some texts (Itivuttaka 60) only
mention three of these but later Pali commentaries expanded these to ten, and the list of ten is a
popular list in Theravada countries. Ittivuttaka #60 says:
"Bhikkhus, there are these three grounds for making merit. What three? The ground for making
merit consisting in giving, the ground for making merit consisting in virtue, and the ground for
making merit consisting in mind-development. These are the three.
One should train in deeds of merit, that yield long-lasting happiness: Generosity, a balanced life,
developing a loving mind. By cultivating these three things, deeds yielding happiness, the wise
person is reborn in bliss, in an untroubled happy world."

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According to Nyanatiloka, Digha Nikaya 30 also mentions several related meritorious
behaviors. D.N. 30 mentions various exemplary meritorious actions done by the Buddha such as:
"...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the
sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in
the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors."
"Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence..."
"giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as
brought people together..."
The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows-

 Giving or charity (dāna), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks; food,
clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
 Morality (sīla), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
 Mental cultivation (bhāvanā).
 Paying due respect to those who are worthy of it (apacāyana), showing appropriate
deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents.
Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
 Helping others perform good deeds (veyyāvacca), looking after others.
 Sharing of merit after doing some good deed (anumodana)
 Rejoicing in the merits of others (pattanumodana), this is common in communal activities.
 Teaching the Dhamma (dhammadesana), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
 Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassavana)
 Straightening one's own views (ditthujukamma)

Key values and virtues

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Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the most
meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.
Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several
important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and
traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga), benevolence
(advesa), and understanding (amoha).
One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the Pāramitās (perfections)
– Dāna (generosity), Sīla (proper
conduct), Nekkhamma (renunciation), Paññā (wisdom), Viriya (energy), Khanti (patience), Sacc
a (honesty), Adhiṭṭhāna (determination), Mettā (Good-Will), Upekkhā (equanimity).
The Four divine abidings (Brahmaviharas) are seen as central virtues and intentions in Buddhist
ethics, psychology and meditation. The four divine abidings are good
will, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. Developing these virtues through meditation
and right action promotes happiness, generates good merit and trains the mind for ethical action.
An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness (Appamada), a combination of
energy/effort (Viriya) and Mindfulness. Mindfulness is an alert presence of mind which allows
one to be more aware of what is happening with one's intentional states. Heedfulness is aided by
'clear comprehension' or 'discrimination' (Sampajañña), which gives rise to moral knowledge of
what is to be done. Another important supporting quality of Buddhist morality is Trust or
Confidence in the teachings of the Buddha and in one's own ability to put them into
practice. Wisdom and Understanding are seen as a prerequisite for acting morally. Having an
understanding of the true nature of reality is seen as leading to ethical actions. Understanding the
truth of not-self for example, allows one to become detached from selfish motivations and
therefore allows one to be more altruistic. Having an understanding of the workings of the mind
and of the law of karma also makes one less likely to perform an unethical action.
The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' (Hri) and Regard for consequences (Apatrapya), as
important virtues. Self-respect is what caused a person to avoid actions which were seen to harm
one's integrity and Ottappa is an awareness of the effects of one's actions and sense of
embarrassment before others.
Giving (Dāna) is seen as the beginning of virtue in Theravada Buddhism and as the basis for
developing further on the path. In Buddhist countries, this is seen in the giving of alms to
Buddhist monastics but also extends to generosity in general (towards family, friends,
coworkers, guests, animals). Giving is said to make one happy, generate good merit as well as
develop non-attachment, therefore it is not just good because it creates good karmic fruits, but it
also develops one's spiritual qualities. In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical
conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower hells
is unlikely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-
Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.
An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence (ahimsa) to all living
creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not
killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism (in
Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain

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perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living
things.[73]
The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship (Kalyāṇa-mittatā), good association, good
intimacy' was the whole, not the half of the holy life (SN 45.2). Developing strong friendships
with good people on the spiritual path is seen as a key aspect of Buddhism and as a key way to
support and grow in one's practice.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another important foundation for moral action is the Bodhisattva ideal.
Bodhisattvas are beings which have chosen to work towards the salvation of all living beings. In
Mahayana Buddhist texts, this path of great compassion is promoted as being superior to that of
the Arhat because the Bodhisattva is seen as working for the benefit of all beings. [74] A
Bodhisattva is one who arouses a powerful emotion called Bodhicitta (mind of enlightenment)
which is a mind which is oriented towards the awakening of oneself and all beings.
Killing
The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that the
taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non
conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and
butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with
compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as in
the case of Angulimala the murderer and to every kind of animal, even pests and vermin (monks
are not allowed to kill any animal, for any reason). Buddhist teachings and institutions therefore
tend to promote peace and compassion, acting as safe havens during times of conflict. In spite of
this, some Buddhists, including monastics such as Japanese warrior monks have historically
performed acts of violence. In China, the Shaolin Monastery developed a martial arts tradition to
defend themselves from attack.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means (upaya) has in some circumstances been
used to excuse the act of killing, if it is being done for compassionate reasons. This form of
"compassionate killing" is allowed by the Upaya-kausalya sutra and the Maha-Upaya-kausalya
sutra only when it "follows from virtuous thought." Some texts acknowledge the negative karmic
consequences of killing, and yet promote it out of compassion. The Bodhisattva-bhumi, a key
Mahayana text, states that if a Bodhisattva sees someone about to kill other Bodhisattvas, they
may take it upon themselves to kill this murderer with the thought that:
"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell.
Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed of
immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."
If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen as
meritorious.
Ahimsa § Buddhism

13
 Statue portrait of 5th Dalai Lama.
The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the 'Three Poisons' of greed, hatred and delusion.
Craving and attachment, the cause of suffering, is also the cause of conflict. Buddhist
philosopher Shantideva states in his Siksasamuccaya: "Wherever conflict arises among living
creatures, the sense of possession is the cause". Craving for material resources as well as
grasping to political or religious views is seen as a major source of war. One's attachment to self-
identity, and identification with tribe, nation state or religion is also another root of human
conflict according to Buddhism.
The Buddha promoted non-violence in various ways, he encouraged his followers not to fight in
wars and not to sell or trade weapons. The Buddha stated that in war, both victor and defeated
suffer: "The victor begets enmity. The vanquished dwells in sorrow. The tranquil lives happily,
abandoning both victory and defeat" (Dhammapada, 201). Buddhist
philosopher Candrakīrti wrote that soldiery was not a respectable profession: "the sacrifice of life
in battle should not be respected, since this is the basis for harmful actions." The Mahayana
Brahmajala Sutra states that those who take the Bodhisattva vows should not take any part in
war, watch a battle, procure or store weapons, praise or approve of killers and aid the killing of
others in any way. In his Abhidharma-kosa, Vasubandhu writes that all soldiers in an army are
guilty of the killing of the army, not just those who perform the actual killing. Modern Buddhist
peace activists include The 14th Dalai Lama, Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, A. T.
Ariyaratne, Preah Maha Ghosananda and Nichidatsu Fujii.
While pacifism is the Buddhist ideal, Buddhist states and kingdoms have waged war throughout
history and Buddhists have found ways to justify these conflicts. The 5th Dalai Lama who was
installed as the head of Buddhism in Tibet by Gushri Khan after the Oirat invasion of
Tibet (1635–1642), praised the acts of the Khan and said that he was an emanation of the great
Bodhisattva Vajrapani.[79] Under the fifth Dalai Lama and the powerful Gelug Regent Sonam
Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, the Tibetan kingdom launched invasions
of Bhutan (c. 1647, ending in failure) and Ladakh (c. 1679, which regained previously lost
Tibetan territory) with Mongol aid
Another example is that of Buddhist warrior monks in feudal Japan who sometimes committed
organized acts of war, protecting their territories and attacking rival Buddhist sects. During the
late Heian Period, the Tendai School was a particularly powerful sect, whose influential
monasteries could wield armies of monks. A key text of this sect was the Mahāyāna
Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which contains passages allowing the use of violence for the defense of
the Dharma. The Ashikaga period saw military conflict between the Tendai school, Jōdo
Shinshū school and the Nichiren Buddhists. Zen Buddhism was influential among the samurai,
and their Bushido code.

14
During World War II almost all Japanese Buddhists temples (except the Soka Gakkai) strongly
supported Japanese imperialism and militarization. The Japanese Pan-Buddhist Society (Myowa
Kai) rejected criticism from Chinese Buddhists, stating that "We now have no choice but to
exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one in order that many may live'" (issatsu tashō)
and that the war was absolutely necessary to implement the dharma in Asia.
Suicide and euthanasia
Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by Dukkha, as unsatisfactory and stressful. Ending
one's life to escape present suffering is seen as futile because one will just be reborn again, and
again. One of the three forms of craving is craving for annihilation (vibhava tanha), and this form
of craving is the root of future suffering. Dying with an unwholesome and agitated state of mind
is seen as leading to a bad rebirth, so suicide is seen as creating negative karma. Ending one's life
is also seen as throwing away the precious opportunity to generate positive karma. While suicide
does not seem to be interpreted as a breaking of the first precept (not killing other beings) it is
still seen as a grave and unwholesome action.
In Theravada Buddhism, for a monk to praise the advantages of death, including simply telling a
person of the miseries of life or the bliss of dying and going to heaven in such a way that he/she
might feel inspired to commit suicide or simply pine away to death, is explicitly stated as a
breach in one of highest vinaya codes regarding the prohibition of harming life, hence it will
result in automatic expulsion from Sangha.
Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life, because
the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future rebirth. The
Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go. Dying consciously,
without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind is seen as a good
transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a common practice; in Tibet
the Bardo Thodol is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.
Traditional Buddhism would hold Euthanasia, where one brings about the death of a suffering
patient (whether or not they desire this) so as to prevent further pain, as a breach of the first
precept. The argument that such a killing is an act of compassion because it prevents suffering is
unacceptable to traditional Buddhist theology because it is seen to be deeply rooted in delusion.
This is because the suffering being who was euthanized would just end up being reborn and
having to suffer due to their karma (even though not all suffering is due to karma), and hence
killing them does not help them escape suffering. The Abhidharma-kosa clearly states that the
killing of one's sick and aged parents is an act of delusion. The act of killing someone in the
process of death also ruins their chance to mindfully experience pain and learn to let go of the
body, hence desire for euthanasia would be a form of aversion to physical pain and a craving for
non-becoming. According to Kalu Rinpoche however, choosing to be removed from life support
is karmically neutral The choice not to receive medical treatment when one is terminally ill is
then not seen as morally reprehensible, as long as it does not arise from a feeling of aversion to
life. This would also apply to not resuscitating a terminal patient.
However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain
stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is
more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk
Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both

15
Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened arhats and euthanized themselves in a calm
and detached state of mind.[
In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of Self-immolation developed. In China, the
first recorded self-immolation was by the monk Fayu (d. 396). According to James A. Benn, this
tended to be much more common during times of social and political turmoil and Buddhist
persecution. It was often interpreted in Buddhist terms as a practice of heroic renunciation. This
practice was widely publicized during the Vietnam war and have also continued as a form of
protest by Tibetans against the Chinese government.

Animals
The Buddha, represented by the Bodhi tree, attended by animals, Sanchi vihara.
Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having
any kind of God given dominion over them as Christianity does.Humans are seen as being more
able to make moral choices, and this means that they should protect and be kind to animals who
are also suffering beings who are living in samsara. Buddhism also sees humans as part of
nature, not as separate from it. Thich Nhat Hanh summarizes the Buddhist view of harmony with
nature thus:
We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it.
Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature the
way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm
nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.
Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place
for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Thai Forest
Tradition.
Buddhist vegetarianism
There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some
schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat.
Many Mahayana Buddhists – especially the Chinese, Vietnamese and most Korean traditions –
strongly oppose meat-eating on scriptural grounds.
The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life.
This is one reason that the Buddha made a distinction between killing animals and eating meat,
and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist texts like
the Pali Canon frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat or livestock)
as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also includes ordering
or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.
The Buddhist king Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of
animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He
gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the
royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was
followed by later Sri Lankan kings. One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:

16
Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly,
in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals
were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only
three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not
even these three creatures will be killed.
Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or
promotes vegetarianism. While Buddhist theory tends to equate killing animals with killing
people (and avoids the conclusion that killing can sometimes be ethical, e.g. defense of
others), outside of the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and some Japanese monastic traditions,
most Buddhists do eat meat in practice; [111] there is however, a significant minority of
Buddhist laypersons in the aforementioned traditions that maintain vegetarianism on a set
schedule and a smaller minority who are full-time Buddhist vegetarians. There is some
controversy surrounding whether or not the Buddha himself died from eating rancid
pork. While most Chinese and Vietnamese monastics are vegetarian vegetarian Tibetans are
rare, due to the harsh Himalayan climate. Japanese lay people tend to eat meat, but
monasteries tend to be vegetarian. In the Pali version of the Tripitaka, there are number of
occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as recommending certain types of meat as a
cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a general sent a servant to purchase meat
specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha declared that:
Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected
(that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); these, Jivaka, are the three
circumstances in which meat should not be eaten, Jivaka! I declare there are three
circumstances in which meat can be eaten: when it is not seen or heard or suspected (that a
living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); Jivaka, I say these are the three
circumstances in which meat can be eaten.

— Jivaka Sutta
The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk
should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would
deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a
certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha
did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In
Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.
While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving
portions of Pali Tripitaka and no Mahayana sutras explicitly declare that meat eating violates
the first precept, certain Mahayana sutras vigorously and unreservedly denounce the eating
of meat, mainly on the ground that such an act violates the bodhisattva's compassion. The
sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the Mahayana version of the Nirvana
Sutra, the Shurangama Sutra, the Brahmajala Sutra, the Angulimaliya
Sutra, the Mahamegha Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra, as well as the Buddha's comments
on the negative karmic effects of meat consumption in the Karma Sutra. In the Mahayana
Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which presents itself as the final elucidatory and definitive
Mahayana teachings of the Buddha on the very eve of his death, the Buddha states that "the
eating of meat extinguishes the seed of Great Kindness", adding that all and every kind of

17
meat and fish consumption (even of animals found already dead) is prohibited by him. He
specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and receive meat from a donor
should eat it: ". . . it should be rejected . . . I say that even meat, fish, game, dried hooves and
scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an infraction . . . I teach the harm arising from
meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious
writings to be the authentic Dharma" and will concoct their own sutras and lyingly claim that
the Buddha allows the eating of meat, whereas in fact he says he does not. A long passage in
the Lankavatara Sutra shows the Buddha speaking out very forcefully against meat
consumption and unequivocally in favor of vegetarianism, since the eating of the flesh of
fellow sentient beings is said by him to be incompatible with the compassion that a
Bodhisattva should strive to cultivate. In several other Mahayana scriptures, too (e.g., the
Mahayana jatakas), the Buddha is seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and
karmically unwholesome.
Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts
praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees
as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because
of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states
in East Asia. The species ficus religiosa is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of
tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.
In Mahayana Buddhism, some teachings hold that trees and plants have Buddha
nature. Kukai held that plants and trees, along with rocks and everything else, were
manifestations of the 'One Mind' of Vairocana and Dogen held that plant life was Buddha
nature.
In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed,
though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his
edicts. Bhikkhu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of
environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief
that increased production and consumption to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads
to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-
harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and
the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement have worked for reforestation and environmental
protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature,
saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He
advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is
our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to
those who come after us

18
Uppalavanna was a Buddhist bhikkhuni, or nun, who was considered one of the top female
disciples of the Buddha. She is considered the second of the Buddha's two chief female disciples,
along with Khema. She was given the name Uppalavanna, meaning "color of a blue water lily", at
birth due to the bluish color of her
skin.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

II

Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism

Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. The idea of path is an important concept in
Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the most
remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur. : the Buddhist teaching of the
means of attaining Nirvana through rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort,
thought, and meditation - the four noble truths. These are crustallized in the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra
or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra ( Sutra of the Tree's Display; "gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree
from the root to the beginning of the branches") is a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin
dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE.
It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th
chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese
translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma
Realm". The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra
chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various
teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of
the Buddha.

19
 The Gandavyuha Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries. The last chapter
of a larger text called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a youth who
commences a journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to enlightenment. The
concept of “path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an enlightened being
(bodhisattva) named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra illustrate the concepts under
discussion:

“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in the
dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva
impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.

I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of
Nirvana.

Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual obstructions.
And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.

Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates the
path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.

All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable,
causing all worlds to be vessels of truth…”
The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a
pyramid, yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred
mountain. In fact, the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple
exhibits characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Candi Borobudur’s design was conceived of by the poet, thinker, and architect Gunadharma,
considered by many today to be a man of great vision and devotion. Meticulously carved relief
sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward
higher states of consciousness. But one has to climb the paths set out on the STUPA.

20
 If one looks from afar and goes home then the pathis not traversed. Just like in Buddhism, one
can become a Buddhist by embracing the path and walking on it. Similarly in Borobudur the way
or paths built on the structure have to be climbed from the floor to the TOP. Whether searing
heat or pouring rain there is no roof or overhed shelter. In fact the journey of Borobudur consists
of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis mundi (cosmic axis). It is
set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation. Devotees
circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend to its uppermost level. At
Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate goal of
enlightenment. Alog the path from the bottom to the to, meticulously carved relief sculptures
stare doen from : ‘walls” upon the pilgrims as they progressively ascend upwards toward
higher states of the structure and also the pictorials representing higher levels of consciousness-
from bottom to the top. Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges
onto the three upper terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional
sculpture of a seated Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large
central stupa, a symbol of the enlightened mind

21
The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and opposite
balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative reliefs
augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the Dharma), depict
various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic stories taken from
important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base
of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that were added shortly after the
building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s weight. The hidden narrative
reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late 19th century before the stones
were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability.

The experience of meaning

The experience of Borobudur relates to the philosophic and spiritual foundation of the Buddhist
religion it concretises and celebrates. Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago, Buddhism has
directly engaged what it sees as the paradoxical nature of human existence. The most essential
tenet the religion promulgates is the impermanent, transient nature of existence. Transcendental
wisdom via the Dharma (the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on recognizing that attachment to the
idea of a fixed, immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the heart
of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the ultimate
message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence along the
stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of circumambulating the
structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of enlightenment. In a real sense, then,
the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes the impermanent. Like a river that is
never the same from moment to moment, to physically move along the path while meditating on
the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical
message of impermanence.

22
From the Gandavyuha Sutra (RIGHT) Crowning stupa The texts illustrated on the walls refer to
pathways as well.

From darkness into light

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of
Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu),
represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base, through
the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four galleries set
at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness (arupadhatu) as
symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72 stupas.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be merely
aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness
spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space.

The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby
access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center
reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries
representing the realms of desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper
walkways, the material effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the
spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.

Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the East
seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy. Light
illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of the site
can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic
and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its physical setting and
the framework of spiritual paradox.

23
 III
The History of the Khmer Empire
By NicholasMorlin

Jan 1, 802-Jayavarman II founds Khmer Empire

Possibly of Khmer descent, Jayavarman II came from Java, where he had been
in captivity or exile, to succeed to the throne as Java’s vassal around 800. An
unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and asserted Khmer independence in
802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as devarāja, or god-king. He
established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River
east of Kâmpóng (Kompong) Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya,
southeast of present-day Siĕmréab (S
Period: Jan 1, 802 to Jan 1, 1431-The History of the Khmer Empire-Oct 17,
877.Indravarman I builds Preah Ko, Bakong Temples and the Indrtaka

While Jayavarman II was credited for the founding of the Khmer Empire ca.
800 AD, Indravarman I was credited for an extensive building program. He set
the foundations for the future Angkorian kings to follow. The king's first act
was to performed a public service for his subjects by building an irrigation
network for the rice fields. The goal was usually achieved by constructing a
large reservoir to retain water during the Monsoon season.
Oct 17, 910- Harshavarman I reigns

24
Harshavarman was a son of King Yasovarman I and his Queen, who was a
sister of Jayavarman IV. Grandparents of Harshavarman were King
Indravarman I and his wife Indradevi. Harshavarman had a younger brother,
Ishanavarman II. His queen was Kambujarajalakshmi. They were the maternal
grandparents of Jayavarman VII. His grandson was Yajnavaraha. He was a
knowledgeable teacher.
Oct 17, 944- Rajendravarman II Reigns

Rajendravarman II was a nephew of former king Yasovarman I. His principal

monuments, located in the Angkor region of Cambodia's Siem Reap province,
are Pre Rup and East Mebon. The king claimed links to the royal line of the

25
Chenla state that had its capital at Bhavapura (the city's location is debated)
and predates the start of the Khmer empire in 802 AD. Inscriptions say that
the Khmer empire under his tutelage extended to southern Vietnam, Laos.
Oct 17, 1002- Civil War

The king died. A civil war ensued between Jayaviravarman and Suryavarman I,
both of whom claimed the throne.
Oct 17, 1011- Suryavarman I founds Dynasty of the Sun

26
After nine years of war, Suryavarman I won the throne. Suryavarman I
established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja
Chola I.
Oct 17, 1080- Jayavarman VI founds the Mahidharapura Dynasty
Coming from Phimai area, in Mun River Valley, he appears as an usurper and
the founder of a new dynasty, the Mahidharapura, from the name of his
family's ancestral home. In inscriptions at the beginning of his reign, he
claimed to be a descendant of the mythical couple of princess Sage Kambu
Swayambhuva and his sister (and wife) Mera, rather than having real ancestors
of royal lineage.
Oct 17, 1113- Suryavarman II Reigns

He was a king of the Khmer Empire from 1113 AD to 1145-1150 AD and the
builder of Angkor Wat, which he dedicated to the Supreme God Vishnu. His
reign's monumental architecture, numerous military campaigns and
restoration of strong government have led historians to rank Suryavarman as
one of the empire's greatest kings.
Oct 17, 1181-Jayavarman VII Reigns

27
Was king (reigned c.1181-1218) of the Khmer Empire in present day Siem
Reap, Cambodia. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150-1160)
and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. He married Jayarajadevi and then, after her
death, married her sister Indradevi. The two women are commonly thought to
have been a great inspiration to him, particularly in his unusual devotion to
Buddhism, as only one prior Khmer king was a Buddhist.
Oct 17, 1220- Indravarman II Reigns

Indravarman II (Khmer: ឥន្វរ្ម័នទី២) was a ruler of the Khmer Empire, son of

Jayavarman VII. There is some dispute regarding the actual period of his reign,
even because his successor, Jayavarman VIII, probably destroyed historical
records about him, but the only inscription which directly mention him reports
that he died in 1243.He was a Buddhist and was also credited with having
enlarged (or completed) some of Jayavarman VII's temple.
Oct 17, 1243- Jayavarman VIII Reigns

Jayavarman VIII (Khmer: ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៨) was one of the kings of the Khmer empire.
His rule lasted from 1243 till 1295, when he abdicated.

28
It was during the reign of Jayavarman VIII that the Mongol forces under the
command of Kublai Khan attacked the Angkor empire in 1283. In 1281,
Jayavarman VIII had imprisoned emissaries of the Mongol generalissimo in
Champa. In 1283, he decided to pay tribute and buy peace and thus his rule
survived. In 1290, the Mon people regained their independence.

Oct 17, 1413- The Thai Enslave

The Thai sack Angkor, enslaving thousands and causing Khmer to move it's
capitsl to Phnon Penh region.

https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/the-history-of-the-khmer-empire--2

The Diversity of Angkorian Kings

Modern Cambodia has been shaped significantly by the ideological nationalism introduced in the French
colonial period. It was at that time, for instance, that Khmers receptive to French ideas of civilization and
racial hierarchy began to think of themselves as the collective inheritors of Angkor’s greatness, and it was
only then that the current word for nation, race, or ethnic group, jāti, entered the
Khmer lexicon via Thailand. One can make a persuasive case that an idea of nationality could not have
existed prior to the introduction of the term for nation into the language.1

29
The Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire are the terms that historians use to refer
to Cambodia from the 9th century to the 15th century when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire
in Southeast Asia. The empire grew out of the former civilizations of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled
over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia[3] and parts of Southern China, stretching from
the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China, and
from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. At its peak, the Khmer Empire was larger than the Byzantine
Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) which existed around the same time.
Perhaps its most notable legacy is the site of Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, the Khmer capital during
the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear testimony
to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique,
aesthetics achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging
has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban
centre in the world.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when King Jayavarman
II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", title equivalent to "emperor") on Phnom Kulen. The
empire ended with the Siege of Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431. Modern scholars
often refer to the empire as the Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire, the latter of which has its named
derive from the former capital city of Angkor.
कम्बुजदेश Kambujadeśa

30
The empire referred to itself as Kambuja (Sanskrit: कम्बोज) or Kambujadeśa (Sanskrit: कम्बुजदेश; which
were ancient terms for Cambodia. The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the historical
kingdom of Kambujadesa is also the history of the Khmer kingdom from the 9th to the 13th centuries.
From Kambuja itself—and so also from the Angkor region—no written records have survived other than
stone inscriptions. Therefore, the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilisation is derived
primarily from:

 Archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation

 Stone inscriptions (the most important of which are foundation steles of temples), which report on the
political and religious deeds of the kings
 Reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life in the palace, market
scenes, and the daily life of the population
 Reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travellers.
Formation and growth
Jayavarman II – the founder of Angkor

Archers mounted on elephants

According to Sdok Kok Thom inscription, circa 781 Indrapura was the first capital of Jayavarman II,
located in Banteay Prey Nokor, near today's Kampong Cham. After he eventually returned to his home,
the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of competing kings,
and in 790 became king of a kingdom called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest
to Mahendraparvata, far inland north from the great lake of Tonlé Sap.
Jayavarman II (802–835) is widely regarded as a king who set the foundations of the Angkor period in
Cambodian history, beginning with a grandiose consecration ritual that he conducted in 802 on the sacred
Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom Kulen, to celebrate the independence of Kambuja from a
place inscriptions call "Java"] At that ceremony Prince Jayavarman II was proclaimed a universal
monarch (Cambodian: Kamraten jagad ta Raja) or God King (Sanskrit: Deva Raja) or "The Lords of
Mountains", hence the concept of Deva Raja or God King was ostensibly imported from Java.
He declared himself Chakravartin in a ritual taken from the Hindu tradition, thereby not only becoming
the divinely appointed and therefore uncontested ruler, but also simultaneously declaring the
independence of his kingdom from Java. According to some sources, Jayavarman II had resided for some
time in Java during the reign of Sailendras,[14]: 35 or "The Lords of Mountains", hence the concept of Deva
Raja or God King was ostensibly imported from Java. At that time, Sailendras allegedly ruled over Java,
Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and parts of Cambodia, around the Mekong delta.
The first pieces of information on Jayavarman II came from the K.235 stone inscription on a stele in Sdok
Kok Thom temple, Isan region, dating to 1053. It recounts two and a half centuries of service that

31
members of the temple's founding family provided for the Khmer court, mainly as chief chaplains of
the Shaivite Hindu religion.
Historians debate whether "Java" means the Indonesian island of Java, Champa or a different location.
According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court
of Sailendra in Java and brought back to his home the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court to
Cambodia. This classical theory was revisited by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques and Michael
Vickery, who noted that Khmer used the term chvea to describe the Chams, their close
neighbours. Moreover, Jayavarman's political career began at Vyadhapura (probably Banteay Prey
Nokor) in eastern Cambodia, which makes the scenario of longtime contacts with the Chams (even
through skirmishes, as the inscription suggests) more probable than the scenario of a long stay in distant
Java.[19] Finally, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show both Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei Krap) and
Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive "temple-mountain" of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat Thmar Dap),
even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer.
In the following years, he extended his territory and, later in his reign, moved from Mahendraparvata and
established his new capital of Hariharalaya near the modern Cambodian town of Rolous. He thereby laid
the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 km to the northwest. Jayavarman II died in the
year 835 and he was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III. Jayavarman III died in 877 and was succeeded
by Indravarman I.
The successors of Jayavarman II continually extended the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned
877–889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building projects, which
were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah
Ko and irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by constructing Bakongm circa
881. Bakong in particular bears striking similarity to the Borobudur temple in Java, which strongly
suggests that it served as the prototype for Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not
missions, between the Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java, transmitting to Cambodia not only
ideas, but also technical and architectural details.

32
 INDO-CHINA 1300 AD
Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor

33
 1. Bakong, one of the earliest temple mountains in Khmer architecture

2. Banteay Srei, a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva

3. Ta Keo, a state temple built around the year 1000

4. Baphuon, a temple-mountain dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva

Indravarman I was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889 – 915), who established a new
capital, Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor. The city's central temple was built on Phnom Bakheng,
a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. Under Yasovarman I the East
Baray was also created, a massive water reservoir of 7.1 by 1.7 km.
At the beginning of the 10th century, the kingdom split. Jayavarman IV established a new capital at Koh
Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor, called Lingapura. Only with Rajendravarman II (reigned 944–
968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He took up again the extensive building schemes of
the earlier kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area, not the least being the East
Mebon, a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray, and several Buddhist
temples, such as Pre Rup, and monasteries. In 950, the first war took place between Kambuja and the
kingdom of Champa to the east (in the modern central Vietnam).
The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V, reigned from 968 to 1001. After he had established himself
as the new king over the other princes, his rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a
cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and named it Jayendranagari;
its state temple, Ta Keo, was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars, and
artists. New temples were also established: the most important of these are Banteay Srei, considered one
of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely
of sandstone.

The pyramid of Koh Ker. Koh Ker was briefly the capital of the Khmer Empire

A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as
antagonists until Suryavarman I (reigned 1006 – 1050) gained the throne. Suryavarman I established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India. Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to
the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to
overthrow him and by military conquests. Suryavarman was successful in taking control of the Khmer
capital city of Angkor Wat.
At the same time, Angkor Wat came into conflict with the Tambralinga kingdom of the Malay
peninsula. In other words, there was a three-way conflict in mainland Southeast Asia. After surviving
several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from the powerful Chola
Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against the Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of
Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from
the Srivijaya King Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.

34
This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. The war ended
with a victory for the Chola dynasty and of the Khmer Empire, and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire
and the Tambralinga kingdom. This alliance also had religious nuance, since both Chola and Khmer
empire were Hindu Shaivite, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist. There is some
indication that before or after these incidents Suryavarman I sent a gift, a chariot, to Rajendra Chola I to
possibly facilitate trade or an alliance. Suryavarman I's wife was Viralakshmi, and following his death in
1050, he was succeeded by Udayadityavarman II, who built the Baphuon and West Baray. In 1074,
conflict arose between Harshavarman III and the Champa King Harivarman IV.
Golden age of Khmer Civilization

Suryavarman II – Angkor Wat- Khmer–Cham wars

The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–
1150) the kingdom united internally and the large temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37
years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. Khmer–Cham wars were a series of conflicts and
contests between states of the Khmer Empire and Champa, later involving Đại Việt, that lasted from the
mid-10th century to the early 13th century in mainland Southeast Asia. The first conflict began in 950 CE
when Khmer troops sacked the Cham principality of Kauthara. Tensions between the Khmer Empire and
Champa reached a climax in the middle of the 12th century when both deployed field armies and waged
devastating wars against each other. The conflicts ended after the Khmer army voluntarily retreated from
occupying Champa in 1220.

35
 Suryavarman 2

Vietnamese war elephant and soldiers pottery figure

Around 950, the Khmer under Rajendravarman II pillaged the temple of Po Nagar in Kauthara and
carried off the statue of the goddess. The invasion however ended in a "bloody defeat". [1] In 965, the
Cham King Jaya Indravaman I restored the temple and rebuilt the statue of the goddess to replace the one
stolen by the Khmer.

Khmer Invasion of Northern Champa( 1074-1080)

In 1074, Harivarman IV became king of Champa. He had close ties to Song China and made peace
with Dai Viet, but provoked a war with the Khmer Empire. In 1080, a Khmer army attacked Vijaya and
other centers in northern Champa. Temples and monasteries were sacked and cultural treasures were
carried off. After much chaos, Cham troops under King Harivarman were able to defeat the invaders and
restore the capital and temples.[6] Subsequently, his raiding forces penetrated Cambodia as far as Sambor
and the Mekong, where they destroyed all religious sanctuaries.
Suryavarman’s Wars(1128-1150)Khmer–Vietnamese war (1123–1150)

In 1127, Suryavarman II demanded Vietnamese king Lý Dương Hoán to pay tribute for the Khmer
Empire, but the Vietnamese refused. Suryavarman decided to expand his territory northward into
Vietnamese territory. The first attack was in 1128 when King Suryavarman led 20,000 soldiers
from Savannakhet to Nghệ An, where they were routed in battle. The following year Suryavarman
continued skirmishes on land and sent 700 ships to bombard the coastal areas of Đại Việt. In 1132, he
persuaded Cham king Jaya Indravarman III to join forces with him to attack Đại Việt, where they briefly
seized Nghệ An and pillaged the coastal districts of Thanh Hoá.
In 1136, a Vietnamese force under Đỗ Anh Vũ counterattacked the Khmer Empire across modern-day
Laos with 30,000 men, but later retreated. The Cham thereupon made peace with the Vietnamese, and
when Suryavarman renewed the attack, Jaya Indravarman refused to cooperate with the Khmers. [7] After a
failed attempt to seize seaports in southern Đại Việt, Suryavarman turned to invade Champa in 1145 and
sacked Vijaya, ending the reign of Jaya Indravarman III and destroying the temples at Mỹ Sơn. In 1147
when a Panduranga prince named Sivänandana was enthroned as Jaya Harivarman I of Champa,
Suryavarman sent an army consisting of Khmers and defected Chams under the command of the senäpati
Sankara to attack Harivarman, but was defeated in the battle of Räjapura in 1148. Another stronger
Khmer army also suffered the same wretchedness fate at the battles of Virapura (present-day Nha Trang)

36
and Caklyaṅ. It is conjectured that both Räjapura, Virapura, and Caklyaṅ's modern-day precise locations
are unknown, but proposes that those medieval locations should be somewhere between Qui
Nhon and Phan Rang.
Unable to overwhelm the Cham, Suryavarman appointed Prince Harideva, a Cham royalty of Cambodian
background, as the puppet king of Champa in Vijaya. In 1149, Harivarman marched his army northward
to Vijaya, besieged the city, vanquished Harideva's army at the battle of Mahisa, then executed Harideva
along with all of his Cambodian–Cham officials and military, therefore ended Suryavarman's occupation
of northern Champa. Harivarman then reunited the kingdom. A royal pretender, Vamsaraja, attacked
Harivarman with highland troops but was defeated and escaped to Đại Việt. Later Vamsaraja was crushed
by Harivarman and slain during the Battle of Mỹ Sơn in 1150.
Cham Invasion of Angkor( 1170,1177-1181 and the Battle of Tonlé Sap

After securing peace with Đại Việt in 1170, Cham forces under Jaya Indravarman IV invaded the Khmer
Empire over land with inconclusive results. In 1177, however, his troops launched a surprise
attack against the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura from warships piloted up the Mekong River to the
great lake Tonlé Sap and killed the Khmer king Tribhuvanadityavarman. Multiple-bow
siege crossbows were introduced to Champa from Song dynasty in 1171, and later were mounted on the
backs of Cham and Vietnamese war elephants. They were deployed by the Cham during the siege
of Angkor, which was defended only by wooden palisades, leading to the Cham occupation of Cambodia
for the next four years.
The Khmer empire was in the verge of collapse. Jayavarman VII from the north coalesced an army to
battle the invaders. He had campaigned against the Chams during in his youth in the 1140s and
participated a campaign in Cham capital Vijaya. His army won a series of unprecedented victories over
the Cham, and by 1181 after winning a decisive naval battle, Jayavarman had rescued the empire and
expelled the Cham.
Conquest of Champa: In 1190, the Khmer king Jayavarman VII appointed a Cham prince
named Vidyanandana, who had defected to Jayavarman in 1182 and had been educated at Angkor, to lead
the Khmer army. Vidyanandana defeated the Chams, and proceeded to occupy Vijaya and capture Jaya
Indravarman IV, whom he sent back to Angkor as a prisoner. Adopting the title of Shri Suryavarmadeva
(or Suryavarman), Vidyanandana made himself king of Panduranga, which became a Khmer vassal. He
made Prince In, a brother-in-law of Jayavarman VII, "King Suryajayavarmadeva in the Nagara of Vijaya"
(or Suryajayavarman). In 1191, a revolt at Vijaya drove Suryajayavarman back to Cambodia and
enthroned Jaya Indravarman V. Vidyanandana then re-occupied Vijaya, killed both Jaya Indravarman IV
and Jaya Indravarman V, then "reigned without opposition over the Kingdom of Champa," declaring his
independence from the Khmer Empire. The Khmer later also had double bow crossbows mounted on
elephants, which Michel Jacq Hergoualc’h suggest were elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman
VII's army.
Khmer armies under Jayavarman VII continued campaigning against Champa until the Chams were
finally defeated in 1203. A Cham renegade-Prince ong Dhanapatigräma, overthrew and expelled his
ruling nephew Vidyanandana/Suryajayavarmadeva to Dai Viet, completed the Khmer conquest of
Champa. From 1203 to 1220, Champa as a Khmer province was ruled by a puppet government led by
either ong Dhanapatigräma and then prince Angsaräja, son of Harivarman I, who would later
become Jaya Paramesvaravarman II. In 1207, Angsaräja led Khmer army with Burmese and Siamese
contingents and battled Dai Viet army. Following the voluntary Khmer evacuation of Champa and
dwindling Khmer military presence, Angsaräja took over the reins of government peacefully, proclaimed
himself Jaya Paramesvaravarman II, and restored Champa's independence.
ROYAL ETHNICITIES

37
 Buddha image in the gesture of touching earth and sheltered by serpents
1.King Jayavarman II (802-835 AD), came from Java, where he had been in captivity or exile, to succeed
to the throne as Java’s vassal around 800. An unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and asserted His
independence in 802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as devarāja, or god-king. He
established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River east of Kâmpóng
(Kompong) Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya, southeast of present-day Siĕmréab (Siem
Reap); and then at Mahendraparvata, in the region just north of the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), not far from
Angkor, the next seat of the Angkor Empire, which remained its capital for 600 years .

2.King Jayaviravarman (1002-1006 AD), The origin of this prince is uncertain: According Achilles
Dauphin-Meunier, he was the rightful successor and brother of Udayadityavarman I, who lives climbing
the pretensions of a usurper, Suryavarman I, but managed to stay in Yaçodhapura. George Coedès, who
considers him a usurper, believes that Jayaviravarman was the prince of the city of Tambralinga (Tamil-
Melayu), was an Indianised Kingdom. Nowadays, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand, and that he
takes power and reigns in Angkor. MJ Boisselier awards him Ta Keo. In any case, Jayaviravarman
disappears after a nine-year civil war.

38
3.King Suryavarman I (1006 -1050 AD), Said to have been a son of a King of Tambralinga (Tamil-
Melayu), was an Indianised Kingdom. Nowaday, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province Thailand, and to have
claimed his right to the same throne. He based his right on the claim of descent through his mother, from
the maternal line of Indravarman I.

4.King Jayavarman VI (1090-1107 AD), at the present town of Phimai, in the Khorat Plateau or Upper
Mun River Valley, which became territory of Thailand after the conquest by Ayutthaya at beginning of the
15th century.2 Vimayapura was created as the provincial capital of the Khmer empire when the attention
of the kings focussed on this region at the end of the 11th century, around one hundred years after seizing
it from the previous leader of Mon Dvaravati(Easthern Dvaravati) occupants.3 At that time, the
Mahidhapura dynasty (Jayavarman vi – Suryavarman ii) wanted to establish a power base to the north of
the Dang Raek mountain range (Dagens 2003, 30; Hendrickson 2007, 196–97) and construct a roadway
connecting it to the capital of the empire, Yashodharapura (Angkor).4 Furthermore, King Jayavarman vi
was born in the region of modern Phimai (Higham 2003, 107) and the city was strategically located on an
ancient trade route from Khorat to the Chao Phraya Delta

Modern Cambodia has been shaped significantly by the ideological nationalism introduced in the French
colonial period. It was at that time, for instance, that Khmers receptive to French ideas of civilization and
racial hierarchy began to think of them.…

REFERENCE
1 Referred: The Descendants of Kambu: The Political Imagination
of Angkorian Cambodia By Ian Nathaniel Lowman
For modern Khmer jāti, see Penny Edwards, Cambodge: The Cultivation of a Nation, 1860-1945
(Honolulu: University
of Hawai’i Press, 2007), 118.

2.Referred: The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC - 1300 AD).
3. Referred: A History of South-East Asia. Macmillan Asian Histories Series Book.
IMG: Head of Buddha Statue, Angkorian Art, 11th century.

4.Referred: In: Manusya: Journal of Humanities E-ISSN: 2665-9077 Print ISSN: 0859-9920 Publisher:
Brill

39
IMG: Buddha Statue, Angkorian Art in Jayavarman VI period at Prasat Hin Phimai, Thailand.

40
Suryavarman-II as depicted on Angkor Frescos

5 WORLD RECORDS of DR Uday Dokras as

World #1

Highest number of Literary ventures in Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu ///Highest number of Literary ventures in
the world 2000 books and research Papers, Seen here with Ms. Mansse Bhandari, COO FUN and FOOD Village Nagpur,
Delhi and Uzbekisthan

LINK to 3 World Awards+ titel to 2 more

1. https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma
2. https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-
temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras
3. https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-
written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
4. Highest number of Literary Endeavours in the World by an Individual. URL to come later
5. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu/ Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including
Borobudur and Prambanan). URL Later

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

About the Author

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in
India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New
Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday
Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata
Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to
Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central
Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a

multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained
degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics)
and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws
from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and
Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has
done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund

and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5
years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the
University of

48
 California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In
1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the
efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch
is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden
-“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland
- “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu &

scribd-Followers(readers) 2 million consolidated as on 26 th
June,2023.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India

Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Vastu,Temple Construction and Management and Efficacy Consultant,
India/Bangkor------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

49
The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human
resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of
potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm
SWEDEN

From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

50
Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-
one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras

Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Institute of Architects,

New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES
on the web in CARONA times( May 2020)

51
52
DIRECTOR (Technical)-https://smkfoundation.com/our-
team/

53
Unravelling the

54
SCIENSome of the 2300 Research Papers and 510 BOOKS written by
DR UDAY DOKRAS

Published by
The Indo Nodic Author’s Collective Sweden and Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

The Cambodian Trilogy

55
 I.HINDU CAMBODIA

II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR

ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and waterways.
It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this intrinsic
kingdom. But is that TRUE?

III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT VANISHED- Angkor

Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021

In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

56
The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

Mathematics in Temple Designs

Jain ART

Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-Book I

A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

57
 Jain Temples II

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE

ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

TIRUPATI TemplePart II

58
Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium

Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been performed by

most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

MAHALAXMI Puja

Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

59
Palestine my Love

Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we

recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its legitimacy
but also its cultural heritage

QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase

introduces mandalas

Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about MANDALAS

60
Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2 Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out
61
Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic in
space

Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries

This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola Kings of
South India 2000 years ago

T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft. From A
to Z Complete Guide.

62
Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art by Srishti Dokras, Architect
Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru

Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of Hindu

temples in 350 page...

DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM

Ativir

63
 ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the Mahavir
with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

Vardhaman-वर्धमान

IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-

THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-Cambodia.

This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in South
East Asia.

BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of South East Asia -HINDU Era

How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj Built
these magnificent structures

Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God King and Kingly Religion The
HINDU Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer

Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

64
Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by him.
Here is the full story... more

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of Alexandria-BOOK

Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020

65
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called Pharos.
Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus

Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020

The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of creation.
Find out the Cosmology.

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple

Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in the
world has many unanswered...

Win with this new DIET

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

66
DISRUPTION-Book

Book Architecture Creativity

Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management

Indo Swedish Author's Collective

PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The project

sphere has not been valued appropriately

Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.

by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari

67
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking audience,the
role of human res... more

Health Human Resource Management

Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource

practices to be followed in hospitals.

WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU
NEED

The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study

Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

The special meaning of Prambanan Temple BOOK

Durga Tantric goddess

Development of the Garbagriha

68
The 4 sided Hindu Mandir( temple ) plan

Vahanas the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Book on Rajmandala

TEMPLE MOUNTAIN o1 or ????

69
 Borobudur as a Tantric Yantra

Mandalification BOOK

All you wanted to know about the structure of Buddhist Cosmology

featured in the Borobudur- but were afraid to ask

Will you walk with me to Borobudur

Bayon...Temple Mountain of Jayagiri

Dr. Uday Vasant Dokras, gets WORLD RECORD of writing and

uploading Highest number of Books and Research papers on Hindu
Temples, Vastu etc
70
 VISHNU as a DESIGN COMPONENT of Angkor

Design Your Destiny. Astrological Readings of Dr Uday Dokras

The Orthogonal plan of Angkor Thom

Spiritual Technologies at Borobudur BOOK

Tantricity of the PRAMBANAN GROUP of Temples BOOK

71
 Borobudur- Waiting for the Maitreya

Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur.. Book

Borobodur BOOK

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple

Scientific Borobudur

72
 Transition between the pre and post Jayavarman II period

Jayavarman II BOOK The Monarch of the Khmer Empire

JAYAVARMAN II Book

The Mystery of the Tantric Dwarpals or Door Guardians in the

ELLORA Hindu Temple Architecture

Architecture and Creativity BOOK

73
 The Book of SriYantra

MANDALA and ARCHITECTURE

Maze of MANDALA PART II

DISRUPTION Book

74
 Hill Temples BOOK

Borobudur---The Tantric Mystique of the Big Boro/ BOOK

“Direction of the Wind “ - “Movement of the Water” Voyage of the
Tantra to South East Asia

The secrets of the Moolasthanam Consecration of Hindu & Other

Temples

The Mysterious Continent of Nusuntara Book

Angkorean Tantricism Revealed

Angkorean Tantricism Revealed COLLECTION of ESSAYS

75
DWARKA & Dvaravati -------Mysterious lost cities of the Hindu World
of Lord KRISHNA

Rama as DEVRAJA
Rama as DEVRAJA in India (Bharat) and Angkor

Krishna's Astonishment BOOK

Krishna's Astonishment BOOK The Complete Compendium of Rock Cut Temple
Architecture of Hindu Manndirs.

76
 Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

THE COSMOLOGY OF ANGKOR

The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati)

The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati)

Lingapura or KOH KER The complete Story-- BOOK

Erotic Sentiment in Indian Temple Sculptures Dr Uday Dokras

77
MANDALA and Territorial Continuity in SE ASIA

Mandala of the Tantra

Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries

Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK

Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK

78
SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of its
CONSTRUCTION
SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of its CONSTRUCTION
Detailed PROJECT

Complexities of the Construction work of Angkor Wat

The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR

TEMPLE )==SHORT BOOKLET(100 pages )
The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR TEMPLE

DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of

KRISHNA

79
 DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of KRISHNA

MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE

MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE The amazing Tamilians as traders and
voyagers

Neither here nor there- but where (NUSUNTARA)

The concept Nusantara is derived from two Sanskrit words: nusa meaning ‘island’
and antara meaning space

ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK

ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK

THUGEE Book
80
Before everything else, let me stress that there are 4 theories about the existence of
the Thugee

Prambanan Temple BOOK

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdom

The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates of

Angkor Thom
The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates of Angkor

MANDALA of BOROBUDUR

81
 Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book
Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book collection of Essays

Shiva Bhairava worship in India and Indonesia. Featuring the Tantric

Ganesh

The Hidden cities of Angkor book

Mandala 6 Book

82
 The destiny of Borobudur BOOK

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

The destiny of Borobudur BOOK

Destiny of Borobudur(How a Hindu Shiva Temple ended up becoming the Worlds
biggest monument to 2 religions

Triptych Mandirs(Temples) of Angkor-BOOK

A triptych is an artwork made up of three pieces or panels. Often used to impart
narrative.

83
 THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK
THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK

The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK

The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK

Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK

Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK

One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia

One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia Fully explained right from how
tantrcism reached Indonesia of those days..

84
 SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples
SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples

The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book

The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book

Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands

Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2022

Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands Was Angkor connected to the power of the
Kings to use as a sword in their people

The Technology of Hindu Mandirs (temples)

85
 Indo Nordic Authors Collective, 2022

600 + pages of all info needed to understand the tech of the Hindu mandirs

The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book

Angkor-The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book Collection of the author's
essays

Hydrology of Angkor (BOOK)

HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir BOOK

INAC, 2022

HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir Water and the Holy Places of Hinduism

86
 SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK)
SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK) PART I-The Hindu Land of Bharat Varsh
(INDIA)

The Mandala of the Sunyata

In Search of the Mandala of emptyness If Mandalas are circular then why are they
bare and emply.

In Search of the Square Mandala

In Search of the Square Mandala If Mandalas are circular then is there a SQUARE?...

The world OF sanskrit book

87
 Khmer cities' Town Planning
How were the Khmer cities planned? BOOK Chapter I-Town Planning in Khmer
Times-

Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning BOOK

Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2020

Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning Is the Hindu mandir A Mandala A stepped

Pyramid A temple Mountain.

Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE

Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE that attracted the Hindu Masses of the Khmer
Kings.

The Pillars and Mandapa of the Hindu Mandir

The Pillars and Mandapa of the Hindu Mandir BOOK

88
 Sanskrit The SINDBAD

Dr Dokras( LEFT) with Dr Harish Rathi leading medical practitioner

of Nagpur,India

89
90
 Medicare in Khmer lands
Dr Uday Dokras

All ancient civilizations of the world developed their own medicinal systems, but the ancient
Indian system of medicine is considered to be the most methodical and the most holistic system,
both in its ideas and its curative measures and today we are finding its impact ( should we say)
on the ancient Khmer medical system. So when the ground breaking and Krong Pali Ceremony
was held at the construction site in Cambodia of a Huge Hospital at Sangkat Veal Vong, Khan 7
Makara last year (2021) how many thought of the excellent healthcare and Hospitals that Khmer
Kings.had.built.centuries.ago?

Workshop on “Buddhism and Traditional Medicine” at the ANA’s Angkor Training Centre on July 20, 2021

Researchers are claiming that the ancient Angkorian Khmer Empire established the world’s first
healthcare system within the government structure, with a total of 102 hospitals built throughout
the empire. Healthcare in past historical periods show the Khmer Empire was the first to create
an organised healthcare system in the world. The international experts presented research
indicating that each hospital established by the Khmer Empire had a proper management system
show Khmer empire had medical facilities with nearly 100 employees, including one director at
each hospital and other staff such as doctors, nurses, pharmacists and medical assistants.The
healthcare system they described was created under King Jayavarman VII and was in operation
from the end of the 12th century onwards. The first scholars to start researching this topic were
the French, who translated the inscriptions at an ancient hospital in Cambodia in 1903, which
confirmed that the Khmer Empire had hospitals in ancient times.

With 102 functioning hospitals all across the kingdom during the reign of King Jayavarman VII,
people of the Angkorian era possessed a great deal of knowledge on medication and the
scientific as well as spiritual healing process. The buildings and temples of some of these ancient
hospitals is discussed below. Historians with the APSARA National Authority in Cambodia,
said regarding the Leak Neang temple which is unique and different from the others because it
was at a hospital. The Leak Neang temple is one of the four temples located at the entrances of
Angkor Thom. Let me explain. [The walled city of] Angkor Thom has the overall shape of a

91
square in which the Bayon temple stands in the center. On each side is a gate to the city.
Actually, there is a fifth gate, but let’s consider only the gates that are perpendicular to the Bayon
temple.

In front of the Angkor Wat temple stands another temple called Prohm Kel, which is in fact a
hospital. Similarly, there’s another temple at the western gate named Tramoung, which is also a
hospital. To the northern gate stands another hospital named Tonle Snguot. We now are at the
Leak Neang temple of the eastern gate. At every gate of the city, there is a hospital. Specifically,
an ancient hospital consisted of the medical-care building, the place where the physician could
stay, the healing center, and the administration center. In every hospital compound, there’s a
temple. Today, we would call it a shrine. The shrine was built for the people to worship. For
example, this is a hospital. Back then, the hospital was usually built of wood with a tile roof. In
that wooden hospital, there was a temple. It was for the sick to pray, worship, make offerings, or
the doctors themselves to worship. What we are seeing today is the remaining stone temple
whereas the wooden hospital with its tile rooftop might be laying around here somewhere.

As the roofs were made of wood the building slowly crumbled, the pieces fell on the ground.
And the surrounding forest eventually spread over the area. So, the temple was surrounded by
the hospital. The overall structure and architectural design of each hospital is identical to one
another. Thus, if we can recognize one hospital temple, we can easily spot the others. The temple
is the clue or key for us to find where the hospital is. We cannot find the hospital itself without
this clue because the wooden building is now gone. Fortunately, we are left with the temple. So,
where the temple stands, the hospital stood. The hospital was not a place to teach. It was a place
to heal the sick...The inscription at the Ta Prohm temple, which…is very near to where are we
right now, contains details on how many medical schools or ak-roak-sala there were during that
period. The “ak” in ak-roak-sala can translate into “Anti-Sickness Building.” The “ak” is a
negative prefix. So, it is the place that cures diseases. There were 102 places that cured illness in
the whole Khmer Empire during the reign of King Jayavarman VII.

Researchers say there were a total of 102 in the Khmer Empire that spread thousands and tens of
thousands of square kilometers. Up to now, we have managed to find the locations of the
hospitals through the temples. Some of them are in Leaw [Laos], Siam [Thailand], the Mekong
Delta of Vietnam, the Angkor region, and other places. Also, in every province or commune,
there is a “doctor’s house.” According to the inscription, it is specifically called a place that cures
diseases or ak-roak-sala- “The place that heals all kinds of diseases”. This place is similar to a
ministry, consisting of a director, doctors, nurses, assistants, guards and much more.

Mainly the inscriptions at every hospital share the same content. It is as if the Angkorian
government implemented a decree to have an inscription at every hospital. Because of the
inscriptions, we are able to know more about the hospitals including the medications, the
management, the origins of the medicines and so on and so forth.

92
 Medicines

The majority of the medicines were written in the Khmer alphabet or through the Sanskrit
language. So far, we know a little about it. There were two categories of medicine being used at
that time. The first category was imported from abroad. The second type of medicine was grown
domestically. Perhaps the hospital had a garden to grow [medicinal plants and herbs] and
produce medicine. The medications were extremely organic. We can see that it is in contrast with
today’s medication, which involve [synthetic] chemicals. Back then, medicines were totally
natural. Based on the inscriptions, most of the medicines were imported from India, another
portion came from China, and some were grown locally as well. These medicines would go to
the government. The government then would distribute the imported medicines and domestic
ones. Whereas other medicinal plants and herbs could be grown around the hospital. At that time,
the medical technology was quite advanced. Some of the ingredients were grinded, separated,
formed into small tablets, and carefully stored. Since these medicines were organic, they could
only be kept for a short period of time. Therefore, each hospital had to visit the royal storage in
Angkor City every three months to get fresh medicine. The hospital directors had to journey to
the main city to get new medicines and materials to supply their hospitals.

A survey of Indian medical historiography will reveal no dearth of work on the systems of
medicine and medical literature of ancient India. However, the people who were responsible for
the healing have not received much attention. The evolution of the physician as a professional in
ancient India was detailed by an article-Physicians of ancient India, Anu Saini,
(
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5084543/). This article reviews the secondary
literature on healing and medical practice in India, specifically pertaining to the individual
medical practitioner, drawing from varied sources. The healers of ancient India hailed from
different castes and classes. They were well-respected and enjoyed state patronage. They were
held to the highest ethical standards of the day and were bound by a strict code of conduct. They
underwent rigorous training in both medicine and surgery. Most physicians were multi-skilled
generalists, and expected to be skilled in elocution and debate. They were reasonably well-off
financially. Could this be the system followed by the Khmer Kings?

Traditional Cambodian medicine comprise several traditional medicine systems in Cambodia.

Healers and herbalists of Cambodian traditional medicine are collectively referred to as Kru
Khmer. There are many regional variations of the practice and herbal knowledge of traditional
medicine within Cambodia. Traditional Cambodian medical practices are widely used in
Cambodia.Because of the ethnic Chinese and ethnic Vietnamese populations of
Cambodia, traditional Chinese medicine and traditional Vietnamese medicine are also practiced
and represented in the country.

The exact origins of traditional Khmer medicine (TM) remains unclear, but it is believed to
have been founded and formalised from the Nokor Phnom period (Funan era) to the 9th century,
during the Angkorian period. It is influenced by Ayurveda (traditional Indian medicine)
and traditional Chinese medicine. These foreign frameworks and practices were mixed with local
beliefs and superstitions to create the foundations of TKM. The temple of Neak Poan is believed

93
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------See
also-Indian Systems of Medicine: A Brief Profile,B Ravishankar and VJ
Shukla(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816487/)
to have been the central temple for Khmer medicine during the Angkorian era. Jayavarman VII,
who reigned c.1181–1218, ordered the construction of 102 hospitals ('halls devoid of disease'
or arogyasala) throughout his realm.

Khmer inscriptions investigated by French archeological researcher George Cœdès in the early
20th century, confirmed the existence of 15 hospitals (out of Jayavarman VII's 102 hospitals)
across the kingdom. Those 15 hospitals are:

Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical park.

Inscriptions detailing Hospitals and their presence

No. Names in English Names in Khmer Sources (inscription codes, pages)

1 Choan Chum ជាន់ជំុ K-11 Inv.I p. 3
2 Kh'na temple ប្សាទខ្នា K-160 p. 240
K-435 BEFEO, XIII p. 34, XV
3 Kok Roka គោករកា
p. 108
K-667 BEEFEO, XXX, p. 222,
4 Banteay Thleng temple ប្សាទបន្ទា យថ្ង
224
5 Sai Fong សាយហ្វុង K-368 Inv.II p. 96
6 Ta Moan Toch temple ប្សាទតាមាន់តូច K-375 Inv.II p. 132
7 Wat Pak'am វត្តផ្គាំ K.386 Inv.II p. 223
8 Konburi គន់បូរី K.387 Inv.II p. 238
9 Nom Van នំវ័ន K-395 Inv.II p. 265
10 Wat Ku វត្តគុ K-402 Inv, II p. 310
West gopura of Angkor
11 គោបុរៈខាងលិចអង្គរធំ K-602 BEFEO, XXVI, p. 512
Thom
12 Ta Prohm Kel temple ប្សាទតាព្ហ្មកិល K-614 Inv.III, p. 116
13 Ta Keo, the hospital temple ប្សាទតាកែវ K-537 BCA1, 1917–30

94
 14 Ta Ke Pong temple ប្សាទតាកេពង់ K-209 Inv, III p. 438
15 Wat Svay វត្តស្វា យ K-912, EFEO No 22, p. 8

Inscriptions in these hospitals describe the number of medical staff and their different roles
such as hospital managers, drug combiner staff, water boiler staff, drug grinders and drug
distributors. An inscription in Sai Fong has become the most renowned quote of King
Jayavarman VII: "Diseases of the people make him more painful than his own illness."
Prasat Chrey and Prasat Lek 8 (Number 8 temple) are temples in Sambor Prei Kuk that were
previous hospital chapels during the Chenla era. Inside the hospital chapels, ground or smashed
traditional herbal medicines extracted from plant trunks, roots and leaves were mixed with
purified water. The drug liquid was then poured over a Shiva Linga to enhance the effectiveness,
after which it flowed from the Linga base through the outside part of the chapels via a drainpipe
connected to the north side of the buildings. Here, patients, who were waiting outside the
hospital, finally received the drug liquid.

Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical park.

95
Jayavarman VII ordered a total of 102 'halls of diseaselessness' across the Angkorian Empire in the 12th century, serving
the general population.

Khmer traditional medicine used to rely on written texts, Khmer sastras or palm-leaf
manuscripts, since the 9th century, stored and studied at the many temples across the
former Khmer Empire. However, during the Cambodian civil war and the following Khmer
Rouge regime, virtually all historic scholarly texts and philosophical literature in Cambodia were
destroyed, including many Khmer medical manuscripts.
To understand the profession and practice of the Kru Khmer in more detail, the profession may
be divided into a number of sub-classifications, each tied to a specific method, affliction of

attention and/or service provided. The knowledge and practice of Traditional medicine( ™) was
written down on palm-leaf manuscripts, written in the pali language, and stored in temples all
over the empire. Most of these original Khmer medicinal manuscripts are thought to have been
destroyed in the Cambodian civil war, but some still exists and they represent some of the most
reliable sources to the origins of TM. Surviving ancient Khmer medical texts shows a
considerable systematization of medical knowledge, but an institutionalized Khmer medical
system with associated doctrine-based practices, did not survive into the modern age in
Cambodia. Scholars and historians have long wondered what happened to this grand medical
tradition and the 13th century is considered a crucial tipping point in the history of traditional
Khmer medicine. The gradual decline of the Angkorian Empire and the religious shifts to
Theravada Buddhism appears to have affected the original medical culture greatly. The Siamese
conquest of Angkor is not thought to have destroyed the medical traditions, but rather
appropriated the medical knowledge and preserved it as Thai instead of Khmer. The French
colonial era is also thought to have affected and prevented the rise of the ancient Khmer medical
tradition. Unlike India for example, where dialogue and knowledge exchange between initial
colonialists and Indian doctors took place, the colonial presence beginning with the 18th century
in Cambodia was almost instantaneous and the French demanded and relied upon Western
medicine from the very start, abolishing the local Cambodian medical traditions altogether. The
following independence and warring upheaval of Cambodia during the civil war, the Khmer
Rouge regime and the Vietnamese occupation, all continued this suppression of medical
traditions, in particular the spiritual aspects. This centuries-long pressure fragmented the Khmer
medical tradition, sometimes with local reinventions emerging.

Historically, three sub-categorizations of the Kru Khmer profession have been noted: kru pet kru
thnam and tmup. Kru pet were the most revered and theoretically educated. They studied the
palm-leaf manuscripts in temples and were mostly found around the royalty's residences and
temples, less so among the general population. Kru thnam, who were herbalists without much
interest in religious aspects, were much more numerous and to be found throughout the
country. Tmup were sorcerers.
These general categorizations are still in use in Cambodia today, but the kru pet class is
nonexistent.

Notable Kru Khmers

Kru pet hermits have always been glorified and venerated in the Khmer culture for their kindness
of saving human and animal lives. Statues were made to pay respect to kru pet, like the hermit

96
sculpture on Phnom Santuk mountain, and hermitages or temples dedicated to kru pet were built
such as Maha Rusey hermitage on Phnom Da mountain.Semahatata was a royal doctor of
King Rodravarman and Jayavarman I during Chenla period. In addition, he was the royal official
of King Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman. At that time, he was the mayor
of Vyadhapura also.

Yajnavaraha was a religious Kru Khmer and royal physician of the Khmer Empire in the 10th
century. Along with Khmer traditional medicine he also practiced Ayurveda, an Indian
traditional medicine system.

Of course, there were schools. The hospital was solely used for medical practice whereas
theories and lessons could be learned at school. The schools were actually the pagodas or the
religious temples such as Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, or Banteay Kdei. These were universities. Even
though they are sacred temples, all the huge temples were also a place for education. Moreover,
higher degree of learning up to the university level for doctors, engineers, architects, and
astrologists was available at the temples as well. Therefore, the temple had multiple functions
aside from religious purposes. Furthermore, the teachers or professors who taught at the temples
were sponsored by the government. Then, they could use their salaries to support and provide for
themselves. The government also supported each doctor who worked at hospitals. A hospital had
to have two doctors, probably 18 nurses and medical assistants, guards, people in charge of
boiling water, people who grinded medicine, rice and more. So, there was approximately 90 to
98 people for a single hospital. This makes a hospital similar to a ministry.

This was only at the last period of the Khmer Empire. There was a legacy from the earlier
generations. It is not as if everything just suddenly appeared during the era of King Jayavarman
VII. Obviously, there were people before him. Nevertheless, in terms of inscriptions or written
evidence, it is clear that the details [regarding hospitals] were inscribed during King Jayavarman
VII’s years. The medical and education sectors appeared earlier, before his reign.

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9th and the 10th century inscriptions,when translated show the written information that
mentions a variety of scholarships including age-oriented government sponsorships, food and
even school supplies. In addition, the inscriptions also mention graduation events for individuals
including the royalty and the king himself becoming teachers. But I would like to emphasize that
no single inscription contains all of these details at once. Instead, this is the result of combining
and saving inscriptions over the years. We have about 3,000 inscriptions and we try to study each
of them and put them together to get the full picture. That’s why a research cannot come to
conclusion based on a single piece of evidence. We have to put all the information together so
that we can understand and, subsequently, compare and analyze disparities in the information.

Restoration Projects --Tonle Snguot

The Tonle Snguot temple, located in the northern section of Angkor Thomis a temple inside a
hospital. Moreover, the study of hospital and medical procedures is still in progress. Although
the Shastras -studied the historical research data, has not been studies people are bworking on
shastra [manuals of instruction] and ancient medications.

In the past, doctors examined the patient’s condition based on four main factors. These factors
are linked to the four elements, which are water, earth, fire, and air. Our body is made of these
four elements. Similarly, these elements will influence our health and that might be the cause of
why we are feeling sick. In the instance of this case, they are treating the cause of sickness based
on the element of air. For some other cases, the doctors will refer to the other three elements. The
absence or imbalance in any element will unsettle our health. We could get sick. This traditional
approach is being used today as well. Whenever one feels discomfort, one will say “chong kert
k’chol” [catching-the-air or minor dizziness]. This is because the air element inside our body is
imbalanced. Traditionally, in order to cure this illness, people would have to chase the air away
through the gua sha body-massage technique. The massage will ease and stabilize the “air” in
one’s body. Then, when one would start to feel more and more lightheaded, they would say
“k’chol ko” (spinning air or fainting). Just like how it feels like when the wind is spinning. And
if one is feeling heavier and heavier as if the air is turning into a tornado, they would exclaim
“dach k’chol” (air disconnection or suffocation). This is the last and harmful part. So, you see,
first it is “kert k’chol” (dizziness). Then, it will lead to “k’chol kor” (fainting). People will
experience unsteadiness and headache at this point. And if it continues to get worst, it will be
harmful.

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 Temples as contributors to medical care

The reason why the Angkor period was so flourishing is neither because of the impressive
temples or the excellent sculptures. Any country could have done the same thing. Instead, the
reason for Angkor’s glory is what we have seen so far. There were hospitals and proper
techniques used to diagnose, proper medications to cure diseases, skilled physicians, nurses, and
first-aid staff. Moreover, another reason that contributed to this peak medical care is the temples.

1. What do you think it means to have a temple inside a hospital?

2. First of all, the temple is meant for the sick to perform monthly or annual ritual
ceremonies. Inside the temple, there are two priests. One will assist with related religious
activities while the other priest will treat the sick.
3. In cases when doctors cannot identify a patient’s disease, then the priest will have to step
in and examine the patient himself.
4. In the end, they will use the two results from both religion and science to come to a
conclusion. All those who enter the hospital will be cured and healthy once again for
sure.
5. If they are possessed by any spirits, the priest over there will know immediately.

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels surrounding Angkor Thom. Another, known simply
as the Chapel of the Hospital is located to the east, with two others--Prasat Tamoung and Ta
Prohm Kel--located to the west and south, respectively. Jayavaraman VII built at least 102 of
these 'arogayasala' throughout the empire, primarily in central Cambodia and modern-day eastern
Thailand (the Khorat plateau). Apart from the chapels, the hospitals were not constructed of
durable materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive.
Although small, the hospitals are decorated in the style of the Bayon with numerous Apsara
figures on each of the four sides.

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Neak-Pean Pean
Neak Pean (or Neak Poan "the entwined serpents") at Angkor, Cambodia is an artificial island
with a Buddhist temple on a circular island in Jayatataka Baray, which was associated with Preah
Khan temple, built during the reign of King Jayavarman VII. Neak Pean was originally designed
for medical purposes (the ancients believed that going into these pools would balance the
elements in the bather, thus curing disease); it is one of the many hospitals that Jayavarman VII
built. It is based on the ancient Hindu belief of balance. Four connected pools represent Water,
Earth, Fire and Wind. Each is connected to the central water source, the main tank, by a stone
conduit "presided over by one of Four Great Animals (maha ajaneya pasu) namely Elephant,
Bull, Horse, and Lion, corresponding to the north, east, south, and west quarters....The stone
conduits in the little pavilions are fashioned to represent the heads of the Four Great
Animals...the only exception being that on the east, which represents a human head instead of a
bull's." Originally, four sculptures stood on the floor of the lake. The only remaining statue is
that of the horse Balaha, a form of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, saving sailors from the
ogresses of Tamradvipa. The temple on the lake was originally dedicated to Avalokitesvara.
Willetts believed that "this is Jayavarman as he would have wished to have appeared to his
people.

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 Hospital Chapel

It is the "Mebon" of the Preah Khan baray (the "Jayatataka" of the inscription). Some historians
believe that Neak Pean represents Anavatapta,a mythical lake in the Himalayas whose waters are
thought to cure all illness. The name is derived from the sculptures of snakes (Nāga) running
around the base of the temple structure, neak being the Khmer rendering of the Sanskrit naga.
"They are Nanda and Upananda, two nagas traditionally associated with Lake Anavatapta."
Zhou Daguan refers to Neak Pean in his visit to Angkor in the late 13th century.

At the same time, one should not confuse the Neak Pean temple [built on a small island in the
middle of the north baray at Angkor] with a hospital, which many people do. The Neak Pean
temple is not a hospital for it does not have enough facilities for treatment. The Neak Pean
temple is a whole other story…it is different from a hospital. There are even accommodations
inside a hospital. In the past, a hospital was not only a place to cure diseases. A hospital was also
a charity-and-rescue center like the present-day Red Cross. People also prepared food and water
at the hospital for the poor and needy. They were allowed to eat there if they could not find food.
There were shelters for the homeless to stay. Anyone could come to stay at the hospital or the
rescue department if one did not have a place to go during the cold season. Therefore, the
hospital was both a charity and rescue place. Furthermore, the hospital was a place that
distributed donations. Every year, the hospital would donate to the poor and sick who were
struggling. They could come to get medicines or goods directly from the hospital.

Hospital Chapel (12th century) Picture to the RIGHT is One of the 102 hospital chapels built
by Jayavarman VII.
In the early years of his reign Jayavarman VII built a number of public works throughout the
empire, including 102 hospitals. Apart from the chapels, they were not constructed of durable
materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive. Four such hospitals (called arogayasala)
were built around Angkor Thom, including this building and Ta Prohm Kel near Angkor Wat.
Although small, they were decorated in the style of the Bayon.
The structure comprises a central sanctuary with an entrance facing east. Originally a gate (now
ruined) provided access from the east. It is located just 150 meters west of Ta Keo, so it is
recommended to combine visits both sites.

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102
 Monastries of Khmer Lands
Dr Uday Dokras
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and
workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone (hermits). A
monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church,
or temple, and may also serve as an oratory, or in the case of communities anything from a single
building housing only one senior and two or three junior monks or nuns, to vast complexes and
estates housing tens or hundreds. A monastery complex typically comprises a number of
buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary,
and outlying granges. Depending on the location, the monastic order and the occupation of its
inhabitants, the complex may also include a wide range of buildings that facilitate self-
sufficiency and service to the community. These may include a hospice, a school, and a range of
agricultural and manufacturing buildings such as a barn, a forge, or a brewery.
In English usage, the term monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of
monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics
(nuns), particularly communities of teaching or nursing religious sisters. Historically, a convent
denoted a house of friars (reflecting the Latin), now more commonly called a friary. Various
religions may apply these terms in more specific ways.
The monasteries were built by the Buddhist kings of Indian sub-continent wheter in mainland
Ondia or in the Himalayas, where they were also known as Royal Lamas. One example is Tabo
Monastery (or Tabo Chos-Khor Monastery[) is located in the Tabo village of Spiti
Valley, Himachal Pradesh, northern India. It was founded in 996 CE in the Tibetan year of the
Fire Ape by the Tibetan Buddhist lotsawa (translator) Rinchen Zangpo (Mahauru Ramabhadra),
on behalf of the king of western Himalayan Kingdom of Guge, Yeshe-Ö. Tabo is noted for being
the oldest continuously operating Buddhist enclave in both India and the Himalayas. A large
number of frescoes displayed on its walls depict tales from the Buddhist pantheon. There are
many priceless collections of thankas (scroll paintings), manuscripts, well-preserved
statues, frescos and extensive murals which cover almost every wall. The monastery is in need of
refurbishing as the wooden structures are aging and the thanka scroll paintings are fading. Kings
extended their kingdom for instance and built networks of trade routes, and built temples along
the route. Tabo was built as a 'daughter' monastery of the Tholing Monastery in Ngari, western
Tibet.

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The term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious
community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism,
there is a somewhat more specific definition of the term and many related
terms.Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara (Pali language el). Viharas may be
occupied by men or women, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by
females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple.
In Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, a
monastery is called a wat. In Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung.A Christian monastery may
be an abbey (i.e., under the rule of an abbot), or a priory (under the rule of a prior), or
conceivably a hermitage (the dwelling of a hermit). It may be a community of men (monks) or of
women (nuns). A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order. In Eastern
Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or
important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra.

In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram.Jains use
the Buddhist term vihara. In most religions, the life inside monasteries is governed by
community rules that stipulate the gender of the inhabitants and require them to
remain celibate and own little or no personal property. The degree to which life inside a
particular monastery is socially separate from the surrounding populace can also vary widely;
some religious traditions mandate isolation for purposes of contemplation removed from the
everyday world, in which case members of the monastic community may spend most of their
time isolated even from each other. Others focus on interacting with the local communities to
provide services, such as teaching, medical care, or evangelism. Some monastic communities are
only occupied seasonally, depending both on the traditions involved and the local weather, and
people may be part of a monastic community for periods ranging from a few days at a time to
almost an entire lifetime. The life within the walls of a monastery may be supported in several
ways: by manufacturing and selling goods, often agricultural products, by donations or alms, by
rental or investment incomes, and by funds from other organizations within the religion, which in
the past formed the traditional support of monasteries.

MATHA
The term matha is also used for 'monastery' in Jainism, and the earliest monasteries near Jain
temples are dated to be from about the 5th-century CE. A matha (Sanskrit: मठ ), also written
as math, muth, mutth, mutt, or mut, is a Sanskrit word that means 'institute or college', and it also
refers to a monastery in Hinduism. An alternative term for such a monastery is adheenam. The
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earliest epigraphical evidence for mathas related to Hindu-temples comes from the 7th to 10th
century CE. Major and influential mathas belong to various schools of Hindu philosophy, such
as those of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The monastery host and feed students, sannyasis (monks,
renouncers, ascetics), gurus and are led by acharyas. These monasteries are sometimes attached
to Hindu temples and have their codes of conduct, initiation and election ceremonies
The mathas in the Hindu tradition have not been limited to religious studies, and historical
evidence suggests that they were centers for diverse studies such as medieval medicine, grammar
and music.
Shaivism
Shaiva mathas were established at least from the 1st millennium onwards, in Kashmir,
Himalayan regions such as Nepal and throughout the subcontinent such as in Tamil Nadu. Many
of the monasteries and attached temples, particularly in the northwest Indian subcontinent, were
destroyed by Islamic armies after the 12th-century, and Shaiva monastic network severely
disrupted from the consequent violence. In some cases, the Hindu monasteries were converted
into Islamic ribats or madrasa (soldier barracks, schools) during the medieval period. The Shaiva
monasteries have been from diverse schools of Shaivism, ranging from nondualist to theistic
schools, and regionally went by a range of names such
as Jogi (Yogis), Natha, Darshani, Kanphata of Gorakshanath sampradaya.
Shaiva Siddhanta
Shaiva Siddhanta is a theistic school of Shaivism based on dualism (human soul and God are
different), and it established matha at least from the middle of 1st millennium CE. Archeological
evidence dated to 724 CE suggests the existence of an influential Saiva Siddhanta matha named
after Mattamayura. Other historical evidence suggests that these Shaiva monks were active in
Shaiva theosophical scholarship and the spread of Shaiva ideas in north and west India till about
the 12th century.
Other major monasteries include the Golaki matha that existed by the 10th century, [ famed for
its round temple shape, probably near modern Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. This monastery
featured a cluster of Shiva temples, a hospital, college and lodging for students. The Golaki
matha was a center for Vedic studies with parallel studies of Buddhist literature. Inscription
evidence suggests set up numerous Shaiva monasteries in the Deccan region under Kakatiya
dynasty sponsorship, many of which were destroyed in Hindu-Muslim wars that ended the
Kakatiya rule. The origins of Golaki matha of central India has been traced to more ancient
monasteries in Kashmir.
In Karnataka, historical evidence suggests that Queen Alhanadevi established the Shaiva
monastery called Kodiya matha which included a temple, monastic lodging and study hall, with
scholarship on Vedas, Shastras and Puranas. The Chola dynasty sponsored many influential
Shaiva mathas. While many Shaiva monasteries had attached temples, some did not and were
entirely dedicated to education and scholarship
Nath Shaiva Mathas
The Nath tradition is a syncretic Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy based Shaiva
tradition, that reveres Shiva and Dattatreya. Its founding is attributed to the ideas
of Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath, developed further with an additional seven other Siddha
Yoga Gurus called "Naths" (literally, lords). The Nath Yogi sampradaya and monastic

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organizations grew starting with the 13th century, with its matha headquarters in Gorakhpur,
Uttar Pradesh. Many of their mathas are found in the northern, central and western states of India
particularly in the Himalayas, but archeological inscriptions suggest their mathas existed in south
India as well. The early Nath monks received endowments in Karnataka, for example, between
the 10th and 13th century, which later became a temple and Shaiva matha hub for them
near Mangalore. The Kadri matha, for instance, is one of the legendary monasteries in the Nath
tradition which attracted converts from Buddhism and infusion of Buddhist ideas into
Shaivism,] and it continues to be a part of the Nath Shaiva tradition, particularly during
the Kumbh Mela celebrations in modern times.

Gorakhnath temple and matha in Gorakhpur, India is one of the major modern matha of the Nath
Shaiva tradition.
The Nath Siddha tradition of Shaivism is credited with establishing numerous Shiva Hindu
temples and monasteries, particularly in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, north Bihar, and Nepal. The Gorakhnath matha is an active
Shaivism monastery named after the medieval saint, Gorakhnath of the Nath sampradayaThe
matha and town of Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh is named after him. The monastery and the
temple performs various cultural and social activities and serves as the cultural hub of the city.
The monastery also publishes texts on the philosophy of Gorakhnath.
Nath Shaiva monastic organization was one of those Hindu monk groups that militarized and
took up arms following the Muslim conquest of India, to resist persecution. were scorned and
persecuted by Mughal Empire officials, and by social, cultural and religious elites. However, the
Nath yogi monks have been very popular with the rural population in South Asia since medieval
times.
Veerashaiva Lingayatism
The matha monastic organization has been active since the emergence of Lingayat movement in
Karnataka around the 12th century. They have enjoyed community support, and have served as
the center for Shaiva studies as well as Lingayat community's educational, cultural and
philanthropic activities. There have been six active large Veerashaiva monasteries, one each at
Kedaranath, Vairagya Shimhasana (Himalayas), Kashi Jnana Shimhasana(Varanasi, Ganges),
Srisaila Surya Shimhasana (Andhra Pradesh), Rambhapuri Veeashimhasana-Balehonnuru and
Ujjini Saddharma Shimhasana (all three in Karnataka
There are three other important veerashaiva mathas which are famous for "trividha"
dasoha(food,shelter and education)
*taralabalu brihanmatha sirigere

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started by jagadguru marulasiddeshwara in twelfth century ,to abolish social discrimination
*siddaganga matha tumkur
*shivaratrishwara matha sattur
There are smaller Vira-Shaiva monasteries, and rural branch monasteries, across India that serve
the needs of the local Lingayat communities.
The Lingayat monasteries have associated priestly class who are referred to as the Jangamas, but
this class is not part of the monastery and often householders. Anyone, from any social class, can
become a Lingayat monk and join its monastery, and the internal organization has allowed social
mobility from its earliest days. The Jangamas often officiate rites of passage, such as wedding.
The succession in Veerashaiva branch monasteries may be appointed either by the main
monastery, or the local chief may name his successor.
Other Shaiva mathas

 Adichunchanagiri Hills
 Dharmapuram Adheenam
 Thiruvaduthurai Adheenam
 Madurai Adheenam
 Thiruppanandal Adheenam
 Sivatirtha matha
 Hardwar matha
 Nasik matha[
 Caughera matha (Nepal
 Dhinodara matha

MATHAS
The matha tradition of Hinduism attracted royal patronage, attracting endowments to support
studies, and these endowments established, states Hartmut Scharfe, what may be "the earliest
case on record of a university scholarship". Some of these medieval era mathas of Hinduism
in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, were for Vedanta studies, but
some mathas from the 700 to 1000 CE period predominantly focussed on Shaivism,
Vaishnavism, military, martial arts, music, painting or other fields of knowledge including
subjects related to Buddhism and Jainism. There is evidence, states Hartmut Scharfe,
of mathas in eastern and northern India from 7th century CE onwards, such as those
in Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh particularly in the Hindu holy city of Kashi, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha, but these are not from ancient temple inscriptions, but implied from
traveller records (Chinese) who visited these regions.

Brahmins were likely involved in the education and oral culture of textual transmission in
ancient India through the gurukul tradition, but inscription evidence collected by E.
Hultzsch suggests that at least some matha attached to temples were dominated by non-Brahmins
by the early 2nd millennium CE.

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Belur Math is an architectural beauty situated on the western banks of the Hooghly River. Marked by
several domes placed in aesthetic harmony, Belur Math is the headquarters of Ramakrishna Math and
Ramakrishna Mission. The two institutions are dedicated to 'Vedanta', a Hindu philosophical sect,
and strongly promote harmony across religions and boundaries. Ramakrishna Math, a monastic
organization and Ramakrishna Mission, a society dedicated to philanthropic activities, together have
171 branches spread across India and other parts of the world. Inside Belur Math, temples honouring
Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Sarada Devi and Swami Vivekananda can be found, all melodiously
reflecting different architectural styles and religious details. Swami Vivekananda, who oversaw the
construction of the temple complex, used symbols from Christianity, Islam as well as Hinduism as
reminders of Ramakrishna’s message. The 40-acre complex also houses the Ramakrishna Museum
and a book store. Built-in 1938, Belur Math is the most important pilgrimage destinations in Kolkata
and is usually visited along with Dakshineshwar Kali Temple, Path Bari and Kancher Mandir. You
can visit all of these by using the Jetty service available outside Belur Math.

The mathas and attached temples routinely hosted debating, Vedic recital and student
competitions, and these were part of community festivals in the history of South Asia.
These mathas were also the centers where many new texts were composed as well as the
libraries and repository of ancient and medieval manuscripts, where the old texts were preserved
and decaying copies replaced over the centuries. The Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva
matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam, for example, was a major source of
preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of ancient Tamil literature for the colonial era scholars trying to
rediscover historic Indian literature. The four major Advaita mathas state in their founding
documents that the respective responsibility of the mathas was to preserve one Veda each. Some

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Hindu monasteries offered hospice care for pilgrims and various forms of assistance to their local
communities.

Hindu mathas and temples – like Buddhist monasteries – had by the 10th-century attached
medical care along with their religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various
inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930
CE states the provision of a physician to two matha to care for the sick and destitute. Similarly, a
stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 CE mentions the provision of
a prasutishala (maternity house), vaidya (physician), an arogyashala (health house) and
a viprasattra (kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social background could
be fed and cared for.

The historical role of mathas as knowledge and services repository is attested in early Sanskrit
texts, as well as many historical inscriptions found along the ruins of Indian temples and
monasteries. For example, several stone inscriptions in Sanskrit and Western Chalukya era
Kannada have been found near the Shiva temple and monastery in a village near Dharwad
district (northwest Karnataka–Maharashtra border). These slabs have been dated to between
1094 and 1215 CE. One of these includes the role of Kodiya–matha – also referred to as
the Dakshina Kedarasvera matha. It states:
There is the Kōḍiyamaṭha, the place of Dakṣiṇakēdāra (dakṣiṇakēdārasthāna), location of
a beautiful field of crops [which are] like hairs bristling for the worship of the Śivaliṅga;
the established place (niṣṭhitasthāna) for the ritual practice of the Śaiva ascetics who are
perpetual chaste students; a place for the self-recitation (svādhyāyasthāna) of the four
Vedas —the Ṛg, Yajus, Sāma, and Ātharva— along with their ancillary treatises; a place
for teaching (byākhyānasthāna) grammar, like the systems of Kumāra, Pāṇini,
Śākaṭāyana, and the Śabdānuśasana; a place for teaching the six systems of philosophy—
namely the Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṃsā, Sāṃkhya, Buddhist, etc.; a place for teaching the
treatises on Yoga— namely the Lākulasiddhānta, the work of Patañjali, and others; a place
for various [branches of] learning (vividhavidyāsthāna), such as the 18 Purāṇas, the
Dharmaśāstras, all Kāvya compositions, drama, dance, and so on; a place for the provision
of food (annadā- nasthāna) to the poor, the helpless, the crippled, the blind, the deaf, story-
tellers, singers, musicians, flute-players, dancers, Vaitāḻikas, the naked, the injured, the
mendicants coming from various regions, like Jain mendicants, those bearing a single or
triple staff, the haṃsa and paramahaṃsa mendicants; a place for the medical treatment
(bhaiṣajyasthāna) of the diseases of the many helpless and sick; a place for offering
protection (abhāyapra- dānasthāna) to all living beings.– Stone inscription (1162 CE),
Shiva temple and monastery, Sanskrit-Kannada hybrid (Tr: Florinda De Simini)

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An Advaita Vedanta monastery and Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Sringeri, Karnataka.

The policy of Dhamma

The policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving some of problems and tensions faced
by a complex society. Ashoka's private empire were responsible for the formation of the policy.
The immediate social environment in which Ashoka grew up influenced him in later
years. The Mauryan kings adopted an eclectic outlook. Chandragupta took recourse to Jainism in
his later years and Bindusara favoured the Ājīvika. Ashoka adopted Buddhism in his personal
life, though he never imposed Buddhism on his subjects.

By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the Mauryan imperial system had become complex,
encompassing various cultures, beliefs and social and political patterns. Ashoka had to either
maintain the structure by force—which would incur tremendous expenses—or to define a set of
social norms which would be acceptable to all social practices and religious beliefs. He was
aware of the tensions which the heterodox sects—Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikaism—had
generated in society. They were all opposed to the domination of the Brahmans and had a
growing number of supporters. But Brahmans continued to control society and hostility was
inevitable. It was essential to bring about a climate of harmony and mutual trust. There were
many areas within the empire where neither the Brahmanical system or the heterodox sects
prevailed. Ashoka referred to the country of Yavanas, where neither Brahmanical
nor Sramanical culture were in vogue. In many tribal areas, people were unfamiliar with
Brahmanical or heterodox ideas. To make the empire survive and to bring some cohesion within
the empire in the midst of this diversity, some common patterns of behaviour and common
approaches to the society's problems were needed.
The principles of Dhamma were formulated to be acceptable to people belonging to
different communities and following any religion. Dhamma was not given any formal definition
or structure. It emphasized tolerance of people and the notion of showing consideration towards
slaves and servants; there is stress on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy,
Brahmans and Sarmanas. Ashoka pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt
to create a sense of harmony. The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence, which was
110
to be practiced by giving up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals.
However, Ashoka realized that a certain display of his political might may be necessary to keep
the primitive forest-dwelling tribes in check.[36]
The policy of Dhamma also included other welfare measures, like the planting of trees and
digging of wells. Ashoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices as meaningless. A group of officers
known as Dhamma mahamattas were instituted to implement and publicize the various aspects of
Dhamma. Ashoka made them responsible for carrying his message to various sections of society,
However, they gradually developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and
soon began to interfere in politics.

Modification of the Natural Environment

The Mauryan period saw a change in the economic structure of the society. The use of iron
resulted in surplus production, and the economy changed from being a simple rural economy to a
pattern of economy in which urban centres became important. It has been generally argued that
the use of Northern Black Polished Ware pottery is an indicator of material prosperity in the
period. The use of punch-marked silver coins and some other varieties of coins, the conscious
intervention of the State to safeguard trade routes and the rise of urban centers point to a
structural change in the economy, requiring adjustments in the society. The commercial classes
had come to the forefront of society. The emergence of urban culture demanded a flexible social
organization. The incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social
fabric also presented a problem.
The response of the Brahmanical social order, which was based on the fourfold varna division,
was to make the caste system more rigid and deny a higher status to the commercial class. The
rigidity of the Brahmanical class system sharpened the divisions within the society. The lower
orders turned to various heterodox sects; this created social tensions. It was this situation which
emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended to the Mauryan throne.
The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built through the later Vedic period, was
coming under increasing attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and
the elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four castes began to
favour new sects. The Vaishyas, who were technically included in the higher social category,
were treated as inferior to both Brahmans and Kshatriya. The opposition of the commercial class
to Brahmanism was to give a fillip to the other sects of the society. Buddhism began
as schismatic movement from the mainstream outlook of Brahmanism. Its basic tenet was an
emphasis on misery and advocacy of the Middle Path. It was a set of ethical principles.
Buddhism opposed the dominance of the Brahmans and the concept of sacrifices and rituals. It
thus appealed to lower social orders and to emerging social classes. The human approach to
relations in society preached by Buddhism further attracted different sections to itself.
Polity
The Mahajanapada of sixth century B.C. marked the beginning of the state system in many parts
of India. Only a small section of society came to have a monopoly of power, which they
exercised over the rest of the society. There were gana-samghas in which the rulers were a group

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of hereditary Kshatriya or members of a clan. By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the state
system had grown very elaborate. It was characterized by:

 The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised
many previous kingdoms, gana-samghas, and areas where no organised states had
previously existed;
 Existence within this vast territory of different faiths, beliefs and practices;
 Monopoly of force by a ruling class, of which the emperor was the supreme head;
 Appropriation by the ruling class of surpluses from agriculture, commerce, and other
sources.
The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor which
required minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and
religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the
propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and engage all sections of the
society. The policy of Dharma was such an endeavor.
Edicts of Ashoka

Ashoka the great expounded his policy of Dhamma through his edicts. By engraving his views
about Dhamma on these edicts, Ashoka tried to directly communicate with his subjects. These
inscriptions were written in different years of his life. The inscriptions can be divided into two
categories. A small group of inscriptions reveal that the king was a follower of Buddhism and
were addresses to the Buddhist church—the Sangha. These inscriptions are declarations of
Ashoka's relationship with the Buddhist order. Inscriptions of the other category are known as
the Major and Minor Rock Edicts, which were inscribed on rock surfaces. This larger group
includes the Pillar Edicts inscribed on specially erected pillars.
All the sites of Ashokan inscription were chosen carefully to ensure that they were accessible to
large numbers of people. These edicts are proclamations to the public at large. They explain the
idea of Dhamma. One must make a distinction between Ashoka's policy of Dhamma which
stressed social responsibility and Ashoka's own commitment as a Buddhist. There has been a
tendency in the past among historians to study the policy of Dhamma and Ashoka as Buddhist in
the same context without making any distinction. An examination of the inscriptions suggests
that Ashoka declared his personal association with a Buddhist order and on the other he tried to
teach, through the policy of Dhamma, the importance of social responsibility and tolerance
amongst different members of the society.
Vihāra generally refers to a Buddhist monastery for Buddhist renunciates, mostly in the Indian
subcontinent. The concept is ancient and in early Sanskrit and Pali texts, it meant any
arrangement of space or facilities for dwellings The term evolved into an architectural concept
wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard, particularly
in Buddhism. The term is also found in Ajivika, Hindu and Jain monastic literature, usually
referring to temporary refuge for wandering monks or nuns during the annual Indian monsoons.
In modern Jainism, the monks continue to wander from town to town except during the rainy
season (Chaturmas), and the term "vihara" refers to their wanderings.
Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in the architecture of India, especially
ancient Indian rock-cut architecture. Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected to it,

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sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the centre of the
back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. Typical large sites such
as the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Karli Caves, and Kanheri Caves contain several
viharas. Some included a chaitya or worship hall nearby. The vihara originated as a shelter for
monks when it rains.

Kanha Cave vihara in the Nasik Caves, 1st century BCE, is one of the earliest.

5th century Cave 4 at the Ajanta Caves with a Buddha statue in the centre shrine cell.

Monasteries of Indradevi

In Case of our Jayavarman VII, there is more evidence of royal sponsorship of monasteries in the
twelfth century. In her inscription at Phimānakas, Jayavarman VII’s second wife, Indradevī, a
devout and well educated Buddhist, sponsored the construction of numerous statues around the
kingdom, took in orphaned girls, sponsored their ordination and sustenance as nuns, and was in

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general known for her ethical behavior. She was a teacher in three named Buddhist nunneries
(jinālaye). These typical Buddhist merit-making activities are proof that there were monastic
institutions at Angkor, including those for women.
The temple organized festivals occasionally where all section of society was involved. The rich
and the poor alike had the benefit of these entertainments. During the festivities, pilgrims were
given free food and lodging in the rest houses attached to the temples.
The temple was flowed as a bank in medieval India. Temple was given twelve to fifteen per cent
as usual rate of interest per annum. Temple in those days, used to give loans on interest. The
temple played a prominent role in mobilizing developmental funds within a region by giving
loans to the village assemblies for developmental purpose. Most of the loans were given for
productive activities such a cultivation, cattle-breeding and trade. All this was done on religious
grounds. The temple indirectly helped in the promotion of trade and commerce in the village.
Generally, various articles needed to pilgrims and for the worship of the deity.

There was numerous servants in temple complex which broadly classified into three categories
such as those engaged in the purely spiritual services, those employed in the administration of
temple and those appointed to render various kinds of other services. ‘Besides the regular
employees, the temple also provided job opportunity to large number of people indirectly. Many
persons were also hired by the temple temporarily or on part-time basi. The temple was a major
source of employment for the people, for instance, the Kesava temple and Panchalingesvara
temple at Somanathapur had nearly one hundred fifty and ninety servants. The Akkesvara
Temple at Sundi in Dharwad, had one thousand servants.

The administration was another significant aspect of temple which can be classified into two
systems, public and private broadly. The village assemblies, it is interesting to note, used to
manage temple affairs either through direct involvement or through a full time manager duly
appointed by it. In the direct involvement the village assembly would elect every year some elder
persons from its own body to look after the management of charities including the temple
administration. If a village was a small one, the temple managements and administration were
taken care of by the village headman himself. The priests were also allowed to take part in the
management of the temples. The main duty of the temple managers were the disbursement and
allotment of temple finances for various activities of the temple and supervising the activities of
the temple.

Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and
its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast Asia entered the
historical period by producing their earliest inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE. Today,
Hindus in Southeast Asia are mainly Overseas Indians and Balinese. There are also Javanese (also
other minorities of Indonesia) and Cham minority in Cambodia and southern Vietnam who practices
Hinduism.
Hindu civilization, which itself formed from various distinct cultures and peoples, including also
early Southeast Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence, was adopted and assimilated into the
indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity. Through the
formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by petty chieftain were
transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It

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gave birth to the former Champa civilisation in southern parts of Central
Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old
Kedah in the Malay Peninsula, the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang
Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire based in Java, Bali and parts of
the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India influenced the languages, scripts, written
tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and artistic aspects of these peoples and nations. A
reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because
Indian culture already some striking similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which
can be explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups) and Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence
on local Indian peoples. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi,
among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer
(Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of
western, eastern and indigenous traditions. Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during
the beginning of the Kingdom of Funan. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official
religions. Angkor Wat, the largest temple complex in the world (now Buddhist) was once a
Hindu temple. The main religion adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism, followed by
Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism as the main state
religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples.
Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara Vishnuloka in
Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman II as Vishnu.
Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically only remained
among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class..
The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where sophisticated culture, art, and
architecture flourish. The Khmer king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management
and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as
canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays. Society was arranged in a hierarchy
reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners - rice farmers and fishermen — formed
the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas - royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and
warriors — formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes
included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and stonemasons, potters,
metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the lowest social level are slaves. The
extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The
state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as
possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or
Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult
enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic
monuments such as Angkor Wat and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.
The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada
Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the
13th century. Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being replaced by
Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu rituals continue to
play an important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the ceremony of coronation
is conducted mostly by royal brahmins, during which the sovereign swears in front of the idols of
gods Vishnu and Shiva to maintain the ancient national traditions.

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In Temple occupation and the tempo of collapse at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, Alison K. Carter et al
studied the historical sequence of change in dwellinds of the people around the temples in order
to uderstand the tempo of organizational change taking place during Angkor’s collapse.
According to them while the relocation of the city’s elite caused a demographic change, the
area was not completely abandoned and forgotten and the Angkor temple remained a
central place in 16th century royal inscriptions and Cambodia’s historical imagination until
contact with the French in the 19th century.

D
o GOODER for the people

Unlike the earlier strategies of the Hindu Khmer Kings who wished to subdue and rule with
fear,during his reign JayavarmanVII continued his military activities, bringing Champa, southern
Laos, and portions of the Malay Peninsula and Burma under his control. But increasingly he
devoted his energies and organizational capacities to the kind of religious and religio-political
construction projects that had been carried on by his royal predecessors. He built a large number
of awesome new temples, including the Bayon, a distinctively Mahāyāna Buddhist central
pyramid temple designed to serve as the primary locus of the royal cult and also as his own
personal mausoleum; personal funerary temples of the Mahāyāna type, which were dedicated to
his mother and father; and a series of provincial temples, which housed reduced replicas of the
Royal Buddha—i.e., Jayavarman represented with the attributes of the Buddha, the original of
which had been set up in the Bayon. He rebuilt the city of Angkor, now known as Angkor Thom,
and rebuilt and extended the system of highways, which radiated outward from the Bayon and
the royal palace and reached far into the provinces. In addition, he constructed more than 100
rest houses along these roads and built more than 100 hospitals, which he dispersed throughout
his kingdom and placed under the protection of Baiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabhā, the Great Buddha
of Healing. King Jayavarman VII is credited with introducing a welfare state that served the
physical and spiritual needs of the Khmer people.

Jayavarman seems to have been obsessed with the need for rapid and extensive construction. For
example, the less than careful workmanship evident in the temples attributed to Jayavarman’s
reign vividly points to the great haste with which they were built. Some scholars have suggested
that the almost frantic sense of urgency associated with Jayavarman’s works derived from the
fact that, having begun his reign at a relatively advanced age, he felt that his time was short and
had to be utilized to the fullest. Others have suggested that Jayavarman’s concern to carry
through such a vast program of largely Buddhist-oriented construction was greatly encouraged
by Jayarajadevi and her sister, both of whom dedicated a tremendous amount of energy toward

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gaining support for Buddhism and specifically for building Buddhist temples. And finally, if
scholars are correct in their surmise that Jayavarman suffered from the dread disease of leprosy,
his concern to mitigate his sin and suffering through the accumulation of great merit may have
given a still further impetus to his piety and zealousness. Whatever his true motivations,
Jayavarman succeeded during his lifetime in creating a legacy that few monarchs in history
(Khmer or otherwise) have been able to equal; he was more than 90 years old when he died.

Over the 37 years of his reign, Jayavarman embarked on a grand program of construction that
included both public works and monuments. Jayavarman VII's bust has been a favorite of khmer
households and a masterpiece of the National Museum for many years. The recent discovery of
portions of the rest of his statue confirmed speculations about his spiritual aura as a sovereign.
As a Mahayana Buddhist, his declared aim was to alleviate the suffering of his people. One
inscription tells us, "He suffered from the illnesses of his subjects more than from his own; the
pain that affected men's bodies was for him a spiritual pain, and thus more piercing." This
declaration must be read in light of the undeniable fact that the numerous monuments erected by
Jayavarman must have required the labor of thousands of workers, and that Jayavarman's reign
was marked by the centralization of the state and the herding of people into ever greater
population centers.
Historians have identified many facets in Jayavarman's intensive building program. In one phase,
he focused on useful constructions, such as his famous 102 hospitals, rest houses along the roads,
and reservoirs. Thereafter, he built a pair of temples in honor of his parents: Ta Prohm in honor
of his mother and Preah Khan in honor of his father.
Finally, he constructed his own "temple-mountain" at Bayon and developed the city of Angkor
Thom around it. He also built Neak Pean ("Coiled Serpent"), one of the smallest but most
beautiful temples in the Angkor complex, a fountain with four surrounding ponds set on an
island in that artificial lake.
Ta Prohm
In 1186, Jayavarman dedicated Ta Prohm ("Ancestor Brahma" or " Eye of Brahma") to his
mother. An inscription indicates that this massive temple at one time had 80,000 people assigned
to its upkeep, including 18 high priests and 615 female dancers
Angkor Thom and Bayon
Angkor Thom ("Grand Angkor" or "Angkor of Dham(ma)") was a new city centre, [9]: 378–382 called
in its day Indrapattha. At the centre of the new city stands one of his most massive achievements
—the temple now called the Bayon, a multi-faceted, multi-towered temple that mixes Buddhist
and Hindu iconography. Its outer walls have startling bas reliefs not only of warfare but the
everyday life of the Khmer army and its followers. These reliefs show camp followers on the
move with animals and oxcarts, hunters, women cooking, female traders selling to Chinese
merchants, and celebrations of common foot soldiers. The reliefs also depict a naval battle on the
great lake, the Tonle Sap.
The Temple of Preah Vihear is located atop a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains and is
dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. It has been called an “outstanding masterpiece of Khmer
architecture”.by.UNESCO.

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The construction of the temple took place between the 9th to 12th century. The unique
architectural complex is actually a series of sanctuaries. These sanctuaries are linked by a system
of pavements and staircases which are intended to represent Mt Meru of Hindu and Buddhist
ideology.

Ta Prohm is the modern name of the temple at Angkor, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia, built in
the Bayon style largely in the late 12th and early 13th centuries and originally called Rajavihara.
Located approximately one kilometre east of Angkor Thom and on the southern edge of the East
Baray, it was founded by the Khmer King Jayavarman VII as a Mahayana Buddhist monastery
and university. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Ta Prohm is in much the same condition in
which it was found: the photogenic and atmospheric combination of trees growing out of the
ruins and the jungle surroundings have made it one of Angkor's most popular temples with
visitors. UNESCO inscribed Ta Prohm on the World Heritage List in 1992. Today, it is one of
the most visited complexes in Cambodia’s Angkor region.

Not only in India, but in the whole world there are people who follow religion and believes in
religious places and works. According to Hindu mythology and ancient culture of India, religious
institutions are divided into two broad categories – temples and monasteries. It is very common
in Hinduism to have family deities or temples of kuldev or religious trusts and monasteries.
Generally, many people do not know the difference between the temple and the monastery. This
article aims to differentiate the math (monastery) and temple.

According to Hindu mythology and ancient Hindu texts, the era is divided into- Satya, Treta,
Dwapara and Kali. In the Satya, Treta and Dwapara Yugas, there was no need for temples
because the gods lived with humans as a part of society. But in the recent era i.e. in the Kali
period, the gods are omnipresent and not in the form of human beings. That is why we make and
worship pictures, idols and figures of these gods and this is our belief and indeed God guides us
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and shows us the right path. Indeed both are the place of worship and a religious institution but
temple and maths are the two different things with minute difference. The factual and legal
differences are elaborated above on the basis of judicial precedents and customs.

Temples and Maths (Monasteries) in India TODAY

Temples are built by Hindus for the worship of idols of God/Goddess. The monasteries are built
primarily intended as residences of monks and as institutions of dissemination of religious
knowledge. According to Wikipedia temple is defined as – A Hindu temple is a symbolic house,
seat and body of divinity. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together,
using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. According to Merriam-Webster
dictionary monastery is- A house for persons under religious vows especially an establishment
for monks.
According to Supreme Court Math means- “A Hindu religious institution with properties
attached thereto and presided over by a person, the succession to whose office devolves in
accordance with the direction of the founder of the institution or is regulated by usage and (i)
whose duty it is to engage himself in imparting religious instruction or rendering spiritual
service; or (ii) who exercises or claims to exercise spiritual headship over a body of disciples;
and includes places of religious worship or instruction which are appurtenant to the
institution.” And Temple means- “A place by whatever designation known used as a place of
public religious worship, and dedicated to, or for the benefit of, or used as of right by, the Hindu
community or of any section thereof, as a place of public religious worship”.
According to Justice R.V. Raveendran- Math is use as a place of public religious worship
whereas Temple is dedication of the structure or place to, or for the benefit of, or use as of right
by, the Hindu community or a section thereof, as a place of public religious worship..
The temples and maths are the registered property and it may either belong to state or may be
private. Centuries ago, hundreds of temples, maths and such endowments were built by the rulers
and our forefathers in India so that the coming generations would follow the same principles and
worship the deities as they used to worship and follow the same custom and usages. And the
second importance of such a temple and monastery is to retain the memory of the founder.

Private/Public Endowments
When a temple is opened for public worship where every person in the society can come and
worship the deity, a valid conclusion can be drawn that this temple is a public endowment. In
contrast, the private endowment is one, which is designed only for the people of one family and
the generations ahead of them, and is set aside safely only for the worship of the family deity, the
rest of the people of society has no right in that temple or monastery, is called a private
endowment.
According to apex court – “The origin of the temple, the manner in which its affairs are
managed, the nature and extent of gifts received by it, rights exercised by the devotees in regard
to worship therein, the consciousness of the manager and the consciousness of the devotees
themselves as to the public character of the temple are factors that go to establish whether a
temple is a public temple or a private temple.”

Control of Government over Maths and Temples

Religious institution today is a source of revenue in the eyes of the government, because even
today, millions and trillions of revenue is generated in temples from donations as dakshina. This

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is a very old tradition that has been practiced since the time of the British, where the British
controlled Hindu temples as sources of revenue and this tradition continues even today. There is
now a dire need for an act to separate the state from religious interferences. The bill was framed
by the then and there minister Dr Satyapal Singh in Lok Sabha, with demands that the state shall
not control, administer or manage any religious institution, shall not frame any law to control a
religious institution and the communities should be allowed to maintain their religious
institutions as per their needs. This bill was made with intent to bars the state from
misappropriation of temples income in name of secular purposes and prevents any state from
usurping any religious institution. This bill to free temples from government control has found
much support from all over the country and even from some political parties such as the
Democratic Social Justice Party (DSJP), a Kerala-based party. But the bill is yet to pass.

Judicial Pronouncements in India

In the case of Thambu Chetti Subraya Chetti v. A.T. Arundel – A Division Bench of the Madras
High Court held that- “The original signification of the term Math or Matha is a building or set
of buildings in which Hindu religious mendicants reside under a superior, who is called a
Mahant. Although a place of worship is not a necessary part of a Math, such a place is, as may
be expected, often found in such institutions, and, though intended primarily for the use of the
inmates, the public may be admitted to it, and so this part of the building may become a place of
religious worship. A Hindu Math somewhat resembles a Catholic Monastery. From the
circumstance that a portion of it is not infrequently devoted to worship, and that the public may
be admitted to it, the term Math has acquired a secondary signification as a small temple. When
the Mattam is in part of in whole used for purposes other than those of public worship, it will be
liable to taxation.”

In the recent judgment of Ayodhya Case the apex court opined that – ‘God is not any juristic
entity and cannot hold the property, but deities in Hindu law are conferred as a person, and
capable of being bestowed with property, or leading it out or suing to take back possession and
all the deities at Hindu places of worship should be treated like other real persons for the purpose
of law.”

OTHER NON-DISCRIPT KHMER TEMPLES THAT COULD HAVE BEEN MATHS FOR
TRAVELLERS

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ABOVE: Bang Mealea ruins.The nearby Bang Mealea, also built in the 12th century.
For those with a yearning for Khmer temples and an intrepid spirit there are an abundance of
sites that remain mostly unvisited. The closest alternative away from the grand circuit other than
Phnom Kulen is Bang Mealea. “It won’t be for everyone as it’s wholly unrestored but, if you’ve
ever dreamed of finding a lost ruin in the jungle then this is the place,” Patton says.
Sixty kilometers from Siem Reap, a once quiet town that has been transformed to serve the
crowds visiting Angkor, is Bang Mealea, also built in the 12th century though is generally
considered to pre-date the Angkor Wat. The two temples share a similar architectural design, but
Bang Mealea was constructed on a single level. The history of the temple remains unknown,
though there are numerous carved panels that depict the legends of Shiva, Vishnu, and the
Buddha further complicating its mysterious origins.

The antithesis of the heavily restored galleries of Angkor Wat, Bang Mealea exists in its natural
state of ruination. A raised walkway allows visitors to move above the collapsed structures
embraced by the constricting roots of silk cottonwood and strangler figs. Throughout the toppled
complex detailed carvings like those of Devetas in flowing sarongs and a rearing five-headed
Naga are as powerful today as when the unknown artisans chiseled them into the native blue
sandstone almost a millennium ago.
BANTEAY CHHMAR

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ABOVE: Banteay Chhmar over the water.
Further on, Banteay Chhmar was built by King Jayavarman VII in the late 12th or early 13th
century to commemorate the death of his son in battle. Around 160 kilometers from Siem Reap
the temple was reopened to the public in 2014 once landmines left over from the country’s civil
war were removed and the damage from looters had been repaired.

ABOVE: The Banteay Chhmar complex ruins.

The temple complex houses numerous bas-relief carvings depicting daily life as well as the
military exploits of the fallen prince. The Banteay Chhmar complex is nearly as large as Angkor
Wat itself so visiting with a local guide helps to find satellite temples still deep in the jungle.
Banteay Chhmar is mostly un-restored though there is work going, Patton says, claiming it’s like
being at Angkor in the 1950’s and that there were only two other signatures in the guest book on
his last visit. In 2017 a scant 2,000 visitors made the trip.
PREAH VIHEAR

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ABOVE: The controversial Preah Vihear near the Thai-Cambodian border.
A bit further still on the Thai-Cambodian border, Preah Vihear temple sits at 525 meters above
sea level on a cliff in the Damgrek Mountains, offering panoramic views of jungle to the west
and the vast rice plains of Thailand to the North. The temple has been a point of conflict between
Thailand and Cambodia that came to a head in 2011 when troops from the two countries engaged
in a bloody standoff.

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