Worship & Ritual in India’s temples

Dr Uday Dokras

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Consulting Astrologer and Vastu Shastra Expert

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Worship & Ritual in India’s temples
Dr Uday Dokras
Worship-and-Ritual

The great and lesser Hindu gods are worshiped in a number of concentric circles of public and
private devotion. Because of the social basis of Hinduism, the most fundamental ceremonies for
every Hindu are those that involve the rites of passage (samskaras). These begin with birth and
the first time the child eats solid food (rice). Later rites include the first haircutting (for a young
boy) and the purification after the first menstruation (for a girl); marriage; and the blessings upon
a pregnancy, to produce a male child and to ensure a successful delivery and the child's survival
of the first six dangerous days after birth (the concern of Shashti, goddess of Six). Last are the
funeral ceremonies (cremation and, if possible, the sprinkling of ashes in a holy river such as the
Ganges) and the yearly offerings to dead ancestors. The most notable of the latter is the pinda, a
ball of rice and sesame seeds given by the eldest male child so that the ghost of his father may
pass from limbo into rebirth. In daily ritual, a Hindu (generally the wife, who is thought to have
more power to intercede with the gods) makes offerings (puja) of fruit or flowers before a small
shrine in the house. She also makes offerings to local snakes or trees or obscure spirits
(benevolent and malevolent) dwelling in her own garden or at crossroads or other magical places
in the village.

Many villages, and all sizable towns, have temples where priests perform ceremonies throughout
the day: sunrise prayers and noises to awaken the god within the holy of holies
(the garbagriha, or “womb-house”); bathing, clothing, and fanning the god; feeding the god and
distributing the remains of the food (prasada) to worshipers. The temple is also a cultural center
where songs are sung, holy texts read aloud (in Sanskrit and vernaculars), and sunset rituals
performed; devout laity may be present at most of these ceremonies. In many temples,
particularly those sacred to goddesses (such as the Kalighat temple to Kali, in Kolkata), goats are
sacrificed on special occasions. The sacrifice is often carried out by a special low-caste priest
outside the bounds of the temple itself. Thousands of simple local temples exist; each may be
nothing more than a small stone box enclosing a formless effigy swathed in cloth, or a slightly
more imposing edifice with a small tank in which to bathe. In addition, India has many temples
of great size as well as complex temple cities, some hewn out of caves (such as Elephanta and
Ellora), some formed of great monolithic slabs (such as those at Mahabalipuram), and some built
of imported and elaborately carved stone slabs (such as the temples at Khajuraho,
Bhubaneshwar, Madurai, and Kanjeevaram). On special days, usually once a year, the image of
the god is taken from its central shrine and paraded around the temple complex on a
magnificently carved wooden chariot (ratha).

Many holy places or shrines (tirthas, literally “fords”), such as Rishikesh in the Himalayas or
Benares on the Ganges, are the objects of pilgrimages from all over India; others are essentially
local shrines. Certain shrines are most frequently visited at special yearly festivals. For example,

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Prayaga, where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers join at Allahabad, is always sacred, but it is
crowded with pilgrims during the Kumbha Mela festival each January and overwhelmed by the
millions who come to the special ceremony held every 12 years. In Bengal, the goddess Durga's
visit to her family and return to her husband Shiva are celebrated every year at Durgapuja, when
images of the goddess are created out of papier-mâché, worshiped for ten days, and then cast into
the Ganges in a dramatic midnight ceremony ringing with drums and glowing with candles.
Some festivals are celebrated throughout India: Diwali, the festival of lights in early winter; and
Holi, the spring carnival, when members of all castes mingle and let down their hair, sprinkling
one another with cascades of red powder and liquid, symbolic of the blood that was probably
used in past centuries.

This extremely conservative country was once home to the world’s first sex treatise and the erotic art on display is
perhaps more shocking now than when it was created.

But India was not always like this. Sexual norms were far more liberal before the 13th Century.

What led to the creation of Khajuraho temples?

As per the legends, Hemvati was a beautiful woman, after whom the Khajuraho temples were
built. One day, when she was bathing in a pool in Benaras, the Moon God was swooned by her
beauty, and could not wait any longer to see her. They conceived a child and named him
Chandravarman. However, she feared that her child might have to face harassment as he was
born out of wedlock. She was so distressed that she cursed the Moon God, who later prophesied
that the child will grow up to become a great king.

Just like the prophecy, the child indeed grew to become a great king, who founded the Chandela
dynasty. One day, after Hemvati passed away, her son saw her in his dreams, where she asked
him to construct temples that would depict human passions.
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India has been a particularly conservative country for the last few hundred years, influenced by
the puritanism of several groups, including Islamic dynasties, British overlords and the country’s
own Brahmin priestly caste. But India was not always like this. Sexual norms were far more
liberal before the 13th Century, giving equal importance to the secular and the spiritual. Sex was
taught as a subject in formal education, and Kamasutra, the world’s first sex treatise, was written
in ancient India between the 4th Century BCE and the 2nd Century.

Sculptures of a sexual nature (Credit: Charukesi Ramadurai)

In fact, if you look closely, reminders of these more liberal times can be seen across the country.
They’re literally carved in stone in the form of erotic motifs on the lower walls of the 13th
Century Sun Temple at Konark in the east Indian state of Orissa. Nudity is prominent in the
paintings and sculptures of heavenly maidens at Maharashtra’s Buddhist rock-cut monastic
caves, Ajanta (2nd Century BCE) and Ellora (5th to 10th Centuries).

Of the original 85 temples, just more than 20 remain (Credit: Charukesi Ramadurai)
India's most graphic example of erotic temple art
However, the best-preserved and most graphic example of erotic temple art can be found in the
small town of Khajuraho in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Its elegantly carved
Hindu temples were declared a Unesco World Heritage site in 1986. Built by the Chandela
dynasty between 950 and 1050, only 22 of the 85 original temples remain.
When I entered the 6sqkm site late one winter afternoon, the sandstone glowed a burnished gold.
Local women carried fresh flowers and incense sticks for their prayers, while visitors
perambulated the outer corridors, gawking at the profuse and intricate sculptures that covered

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every inch of the walls. There were images of gods and goddesses, warriors and musicians,
animals and birds. It could have been a scene from any temple in India.
Many of these carvings were of an intensely erotic nature, featuring men, women and animals.
But on closer inspection, many of these carvings were of an intensely erotic nature, featuring
men, women and animals. There were depictions of threesomes, orgies and bestiality. Although I
knew what to expect, I was still taken aback by shapely maidens and virile men contorting their
bodies in impossible sexual positions, right next to sculptures of divine beings smiling blissfully
at the devout. Although a few stones were chipped and several limbs broken, the carvings were
incredibly pristine, considering that the temples are more than 1,000 years old.

admire the stone carvings /A woman offers prayers at the temple

There are various theories about the existence of such graphic erotic motifs. One of the more
exotic ones propounds that since Chandela kings were followers of Tantric principles, which
dictate the balance between the male and female forces, they promoted their faith in the temples
they created.
Some believe the depiction of sexual activities was considered a good omen.
Other theories have to do with the role of temples themselves in those times: they were
considered places of learning as well as worship – especially of the finer arts, including the art of
lovemaking. In addition, some believe that the depiction of sexual activities in temples was
considered a good omen because it represented new beginnings and new life.

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Carvings cover every inch of the outer walls

That apart, Hinduism has traditionally considered sex an essential part of life, which could be
why the carvings are casually interspersed between others that portray activities as varied as
prayer and war. The fact that they are set in plain view and not tucked away in an obscure corner
seems to suggest that their creators meant for them to be seen by all.

Isolation helped these graphic motifs survive

Bizarrely, there’s no reason why these ornate temples were built at Khajuraho, since there’s no
clear record of whether there was even a kingdom in this location. The survival of these graphic
motifs can likely be attributed to their isolation for hundreds of years in the region’s once-thick
forest, only rediscovered by Englishman Captain TS Burt in 1838. In fact, Burt himself had to be
persuaded by his Indian attendants to make the journey; he didn’t believe anything of interest
would be found at the remote spot. These charmed temples have also managed to evade the
wrath of India’s moral police, who in recent years banned or destroyed a range of cultural
artefacts, ranging from Salman Rushdie’s books to MF Hussain’s paintings.
But what I found even more interesting than the explicit carvings and the history behind them
was the fact that entire families were quietly engrossed in the guide’s speech as he analysed the
spicier carvings high on the walls of the magnificent Kandariya Mahadeva temple. No eyebrows
were raised, no embarrassed looks were exchanged, no giggles escaped young lips. Perhaps the
art is unobjectionable when crouched within a religious context – but I came away believing that
Khajuraho holds within its walls a larger lesson on tolerance for India.

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Many sculptures depict bestiality

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KHAJURAHO, ITS EROTIC RELIEFS AND THE CHANDELAS
KHAJURAHO

Khajuraho (600 kilometers southeast of Delhi, 400 kilometers south of Agra) is remote city
famed for its erotic temples. The origin of the temples and the history of the Chandela
dynasty that built them is not completely understood. But it is known that at least 850
temples were built between A.D 950 and 1050 over a wide area, of which 22 are still in fairly
good shape. The city was built in such a remote location so that it could escape the ravages
of invaders.
What makes Khajuraho so interesting are the sculptures of gods, goddesses and mortal in
various love-making positions on the sandstone walls of the temples. In one extraordinary
bas-relief a man doing a headstand is shown getting it on with a woman — held off the
ground by a pair of large-breasted assistants — doings the splits. The sculptures are
considered to be some of the best examples of erotic Hindu art in India. Most of the temples
have two or three bands of these sculptures.
Khajuraho is situated in Madhya Pradesh among the Vindhya mountain range and features
both Hindu and Jain temples. The stunning intricate sculptures depict different aspects of life
— spirituality, love, friendship, sports and royal life — as well as sex. Khajuraho was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. The complex of Khajuraho represents a
unique artistic creation, as much for its highly original architecture as for the sculpted decor
of a surprising quality made up of a mythological repertory of numerous scenes of
amusements of which not the least known are the scenes, susceptible to various
interpretations, sacred or profane.

Khajuraho is believed to have been built in a relatively short period of time: over 100
years, between A.D. 950-1050. The complex consists of 22 temple structures from a group of
85 original ones that were built. Forgotten for centuries, they were rediscovered in the 1850s
and restored. The temples were conceived and built under the rule of the Chandela dynasty.
As for the source of the name Khajuraho, it is said the Chandela rulers built a huge wall
around the temples. The wall had eight gates flanked on either side by khajur or date palm
trees, which is found in abundance in this region. The temples were, thus, called khajura
vatika, or bearing khajura.

According to UNESCO: “Khajuraho is one of the capitals of the Chandella rulers, a dynasty
of Rajput origin which came into power at the beginning of the 10th century, and reached its
apogee between 950 and 1050. Of the 85 temples which were constructed at Khajuraho
during the Chandella period (and which were still resplendent: when the great traveler Ibn
Battuta noted them in 1335), 22 still exist, disseminated within an area of about 6 square
kilometers. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage Site website]

“The great “love temples” of northern India, including Khajuraho, were built in the eleventh
century by the Chandella dynasty...As, monuments of two distinct religions, Brahminism and
Jainism, the temples of Khajuraho are nonetheless distinguished by a common typology: they
comprise an elevated substructure, over which rises the body of the richly decorated
building, the 'jangha', covered with several registers of sculpted panels on to which open-

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work galleries are opened. This is crowned by a series of bundled towers with curvilinear
contours, the Sikharas.

“The highest are found over the sanctuary of the divinity. Each of these towers, which is
characteristic of the temples in the Nagera style, symbolizes the 'cosmic mountain', Mount
Kailasha. The typical plan comprises an entrance, a large hypostyle hall (mandapa), a dark
sanctuary and finally various annexes.”

Chandelas

The Chandelas were the builders of Khajuraho. They ruled much of the Bundelkhand region
(then called Jejakabhukti) in central India southeast of Delhi between the 9th and the 13th
centuries. The Chandela or Chandel were a rajputs (a powerful military caste). The Chandel
dynasty is famous in Indian history for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who repulsed the attacks
of Mahmud of Ghazni and was behind much of the erotic sculptures at Khajuraho. The word
Chandela is said to have evolved from of Chandratreya, combination of two words indicating
the lineage Chandra vamsa and Atreya gotra.
The origin of the Chandelas is shrouded in mystery. A legend attributes their descent to the
union of the Moon (Candrama) with a Brahman damsel. This is obviously an absurd myth,
invented for giving the clan a noble pedigree. In the opinion of Vincent Smith, however, the
indications are that the Chandelas sprang from the aboriginal stock of the Bihars or the
Gonds, and their original seat was Maniyagarh on the Ken river in the Chatarpur State.

The most important cities in the Chandela kingdom were Khajuraho, Kalanjara, and Mahoba.
Vincent Smith remarks: “The first-named town, with its group of magnificent temples, may
be regarded as the religious, the second, with its strong fortress, as the military, and the third,
with its palace, as the civil capital.” The Chandelas beautified Bundelkhand by constructing a
large number of exquisite religious edifices and embanked lakes. One of the latter was the
Madanasagara, formed by Madanavarman at Mahoba.

The Chandelas came into prominence in southern Bundelkhand under the leadership of
Nannuka early in the ninth century. His grandson was Jeja or Jayasakti, after whom the
kingdom was called Jejakabhukti. It appears from traditions and epigraphic testimony that
the first few princes of the dynasty were feudatories of the great Pratihara emperors of
Kanauj. But Harsadeva Chandela enhanced the prestige and influence of the family
considerably by placing Mahlpala (Ksitipala) on the Imperial throne in opposition to his
brother or half-brother, Bhoja II. During the reign of Yasovatman, the Chandelas gained a
larger measure of independence, and aggrandised themselves at the cost of their neighbours,
viz., the Cedis, Malavas, Kosalas, etc. According to an inscription, found at Khajuraho,
Yasovarman was “a scorching fire to the Gurjaras,” and that he “easily conquered the fort of
Kalanjara,” one of the important strongholds of the Pratiharas. He is also said to have
compelled Devapala Pratihara to surrender to him a celebrated image of Vaikuntha (Visnu),
which he subsequently set up in a stately shrine at Khajuraho.

Chandelas Kings

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Dhanga (c. A.D. 950-1002) was Yasovarman’s son and successor. Strangely enough,
however, he invokes the name of the Pratihara king (Vinayakapala II) as his overlord in the
Vikrama year 1011-954 A.D. It would, therefore, appear that like the Nizam of the Deccan
and the Nawabs of Oudh, who were virtually independent and yet nominally acknowledged
the suzerainty of the great Moghul at Delhi, the Candel ruler did not all at once break off
formal relations with the effete Imperial power at Kanauj, but for some time maintained an
outward show of submission. Subsequently-, the kingdom of Jejakabhukti saw its palmy days
under Dhanga, for an inscription, discovered at Mhow, alleges that he attained to “supreme
lordship after inflicting a defeat over the king of Kanyakubja.” The success of the Chandelas
is confirmed by the Khajuraho epigraph, wherein we arc told that Dhariga ruled the earth
“playfully acquired by the action of his long and strong arms, as far as Kalanjara, and as far
as Bhasvat situated (?) on the banks of the river.Malava; from here to the banks of the river
Kalindl (Jumna), and from here also to the frontiers of the Cedi country, and even as far as
that mountain called Gopa (Gopadri), which is the unique abode of marvel.” The loss of
Gwalior must have dealt a severe blow to the fortunes of the Pratiharas, since thereby the
Chandelas got hold of a strategic position, which they could well use as a base for further
encroachments. Indeed, it is likely that towards the close of his reign Dhariga carried his
arms up to Benares, where he granted a village to a Brahman in the Vikrama year 1055-998
A.D. In 989 or 990 A.D. when Jayapala, the Sahi king, invited prominent Hindu states to
help him in resisting the aggressions of Sabuktigin, Dhariga, along with other potentates,
promptly responded with men and money, and shared the disaster suffered by the confederate
army.

Ganda was Dhariga’s son, Ganda. He joined the coalition formed by Anandapala Sahi in
1008 A.D. to repel the invasion of Mahmud but nothing availed the Hindus and their forces
were utterly routed by the Sultan. Next, •Ganda sent an expedition under the crown-prince,
Vidyadhara, to punish Rajyapala of Kanauj for his pusillanimous surrender to Mahmud about
the end of 1018 A.D. The Pratihara monarch was, of course, slain, but when the tidings
reached Ghazni the Sultan was so enraged that he forthwith marched against Nanda (Ganda)
1 to repress his audacity. Thus, the opponents came face to face in H. 410— 1019 A.D. Just
at the psychological moment, however, the Chandela ruler became alarmed at the intrepidity
and strength of the Muslim hosts, whereupon under cover of night he c fled with some of his
baggage and equipments.’ 2 In H. 413 — X022 A.D. Mahmud attacked the Candel territories
for the second time. Having taken Gwalior in 1023 A.D. he invested Kalanjara. Again,
Nanda or Ganda cowardly submitted to the invader, who thereupon gave him back the
conquered forts, and triumphantly returned home with a large booty.

Klrtivarman was the next distinguished member of this dynasty. He revived the power of
the Chandelas, which had been eclipsed in the time of his predecessors owing to the military
activities of the Kalacuri kings, Garigeyadeva and Laksml-karna. Klrtivarman himself was
vanquished by the latter in the earlier part of his reign, but it appears from inscriptions and
the prologue to Krisna Misra’s Vrabodha-Candrodaya, an allegorical play in honour of Visnu
and the Vedanta philosophy, that the Candel ruler eventually won a decided Victory over his
mighty Cedi rival.

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Madanavarman was another notable figure, whose known dates range from 1129 to 1163
A.D. He claims to have defeated the “lord of Gurjara,” generally identified with Siddharaja-
Jayasimha of Gujarat (c. 1095- 1143 A.D.). An inscription, found at Man (Jhansi district),
further testifies that Madanavarman overcame the Cedi monarch (perhaps Gaya-Karna);
exterminated his Malava i.e., Paramara contemporary; and forced the “king of Kail,”
probably identical with Vijayacandta Gahadavala, “to pass his time in friendly behaviour.”
Paramardi, or Paramal of popular traditions, was the last prominent Candclla sovereign. He
ruled from circa 1165 A.D. to 1203. We learn from the Madanapur inscription 2 and Cand’s
R a so that he sustained a reverse in 1182-83 A.D. at the hands of Prithvlraja Cauhan who
occupied Mahoba and other fortresses in Bundelkhand. But Paramardi escaped complete
annihilation, and afterwards recovered the lost ground. In 1203 A.D. he offered stubborn
resistance to Qutb-ud-dln Aibak during the siege of Kalanjara. Finding that the odds were
altogether against him, Paramardi capitulated, but he died before fulfilling any of the terms
imposed. His minister, Ajadcva, then took up the defence; he also had, however, to surrender
soon after. Qutb-ud-din next captured Mahoba, and put the subjugated territory under the
charge of a Muslim governor. The Chandelas were thus kid low, although they lingered on as
petty chieftains.until the sixteenth century.

Khajuraho Temples

Based on their geographical location, Khajuraho’s two dozen or so temples are grouped into
three areas: Eastern, Western and Southern. Kandariya, the largest, most and most typical of
the Khajuraho temples, is dedicated to Shiva. The main shrine is exquisitely carved and
features delicate details. Among the other temples worth visiting are Chaunsat Yogini (the
oldest surviving shrine), Devi Jagada (temple dedicated to Kali), Chitragupta, Vishwanath,
Lakshmana, Varaha and Matangeswara temple.

The temples are spread over an area of six square kilometers. They are dedicated to both
Hindu deities and Jain figures. About six of these temples have Lord Shiva as the main idol,
eight are dedicated to Lord Vishnu, one each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God, while three
are dedicated to Jain tirthankaras (saints). The largest among these is the Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is also one of the four holy sites of Shiva
worship, the other three being Kashi, Kedarnath and Gaya.

According to UNESCO: “ Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups
and belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance
between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion
of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art.” Some of the temples are
deteriorating at an alarming pace due to irrigation canals in the area that have raised
groundwater levels, causing water to rise through the stones by capillary action and
deteriorating the stones.

Sculptures at the Khajuraho Temples

The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva temple
alone decorated with over 870. Some 10 percent of these iconographic carvings contain

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 sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old
structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities;
however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings. Core
Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in
combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as
moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch, This state which is “like a man and woman in
close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence
(Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).

Stella Kramrisch said: “There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in
Khajuraho temples. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama
scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual
themes such as moksha. This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a
symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the
nature

The Khajuraho temples represent many forms of arts that flourished in medieval Rajput
kingdoms, including Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and
Kavyamimansa poems and dramas. In addition to the sculptures believed to represent sexual
practices there are many imaginary animals, including the vyalas (hybrids of a lion, horse
and many other animals). In South India, vyalas face outward towards the person viewing the
sculpture. At Khajuraho, the vyalas face sideways and many scholars wonder why. Also at
Khajuraho, the vyalas appear ro have equal status with the gods and apsarases, the female
spirit of the clouds and water. This could possibly mean that the vyalas were just as
important as Hindu gods in the Chandella religion.

Erotic Sculptures at Khajuraho

The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10 percent is sexual or erotic
art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have
small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be
tantric sexual practices. Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of
treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit
display is common in Hindu temples. Over 90 percent of the art work at the temple is about
daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture. The Khajuraho temples represent
one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from the
A.D. 8th through 10th century.

The sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures are "the apogee of erotic art": "Twisting, broad-
hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on
exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the
stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting
and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins,
guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking
couples."

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These paintings are “Greatly influenced by the Tantric school of thought, the Chandela kings
promoted various Tantric doctrines through royal monuments, including temples. Sculptors
of Khajuraho depicted all aspects of life. The society of the time believed in dealing frankly
and openly with all aspects of life, including sex. Sex is important because Tantric cosmos is
divided into the male and female principle. Male principle has the form and potential, female
has the energy. According to Hindu and Tantric philosophy, one can not achieve anything
without the other, as they manifest themselves in all aspects of the universe. Nothing can
exist without their cooperation and coexistence. In accordance with ancient treaties on
architecture, erotic depictions were reserved for specific parts of the temples only. The rest of
the temple was profusely covered with other aspects of life, secular and spiritual.

Important Temples at Khajuraho

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is the tallest, the largest and the most stunning in the
Khajuraho complex. Built sometime during 1025-1050, with about 870 spectacular
sculptures, it is considered to be the spiritual abode of Lord Shiva. It is most popular for its
ornate architecture, including statues of beautifully adorned women. The structure has a
shikhara (spire) about 31 meters high that depicts Mount Kailash. This main spire is
surrounded by 84 miniature spires (Urushringas).
Kandariya is most sexual and typical of the Khajuraho temples. The main shrine is
exquisitely carved and features delicate details. The temple houses a lingam (phallic symbol
honoring Shiva) made of marble in its sanctum sanctorum, with 646 statues dotting its
boundary. Facing towards the east, the entrance of the temple has a staircase and porch that
have been adorned with garlands chiselled out of solid single stone. It is believed that Raja
Dhandadeva, a Chandela ruler, built this temple.
Chitragupta Temple is located in the east direction and faces the rising sun. It is the only
temple dedicated to the Sun God and was constructed in the 11th century. A 5-foot-tall idol
of the deity sitting on a chariot driven by seven horses sits in the temple. The walls of the
temple are beautifully carved and give a glimpse of various historical events. The prime
attractions include an image of Lord Vishnu in the 11-headed form on the south wall.
Visitors are also left mesmerised by the intricate carvings of dancing girls, elephant fights,
processions and hunting scenes done on the interior of the temple. The exterior of the temple
is also beautiful and one can find sculptures of apsaras (celestial nymphs), vyalas, mithunas
and deities there. Moreover, more than 70 other figures have been carved on the balcony
panels of the temple. The doorways are also elaborately ornamented and portray a series of
three figures of the Sun God, similar to the one in the sanctum sanctorum. One can also visit
the three-storeyed stepped tank inside the premises. Called as chopra, it was also constructed
by the Chandela rulers.
Western Temples at Khajuraho

According to UNESCO: “The most important group of monuments is massed in the western
zone, not far from the archaeological museum, including the temples of Varaha, Lakshmana,
Matangeshwara, Kandariya, Mahadeva Chitragupta, Chopra Tank, Parvati, Vishwanatha and
Nandi. [Source: UNESCO]
“Yasovarman (AD 954) built the temple of Vishnu, now famous as Lakshmana temple; this
is an ornate and evolved example of its time proclaiming the prestige of the Chandellas. The

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Visvanatha, Parsvanatha and Vaidyanatha temples belong to the time of King Dhanga, the
successor of Yasovarman. The Jagadambi, Chitragupta, are noteworthy among the western
group of royal temples of Khajuraho. The largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho is the
immortal Kandariya Mahadeva which is attributed to King Ganda (1017-29).
Lakshman Temple (in the Western group of temples) is considered to be the oldest and the
most aesthetically pleasing. It was one of the first temples built by the Chandela kings, and
the patron of this temple is believed to be Yashovarman, who gained control over areas in the
Bundelkhand region of central India. Yashovarman sought to build this temple to mark his
rule over these territories. However, he died before the construction was completed and his
son, Dhanga, took over the work and dedicated the temple in 954. The temple showcases the
trinity of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. Built on a high platform, it is made in a
tiered format with intricately carved columns.
The main idol of the temple is an image of Lord Vishnu in a three-headed avatar called
Vaikuntha. It is placed in the inner chamber known as garba griha (sanctum sanctorum),
which is an architectural feature of most Hindu temples. The building of the temple reflects a
Nagara style of architecture, owing to the flat-roofed entry porch called mandapa and a
shrine called vimana. The shrine of Nagara temples comprises a base platform and a
superstructure called shikhara (spire).
Chaunsat Yogini (in the Western group of temples) is a composition of small hut-like
structures surrounding an open courtyard. Standing apart from all other temples in the area, it
was built in 875-900 and is a part of the Western group of temples. The temple is dedicated
to 64 female yoginis (female attendants) who are considered to be forms of the Mother
Goddess. This temple is quite unique and is the only one here that is built with local granite.
Its architecture is quite simple and has no ornamentation. The walls are almost bare and lack
the characteristic carvings of temples in Khajuraho. There are a total of 67 shrines in the
temple complex and the largest one is dedicated to Goddess Durga, who is presented in the
form of Mahishasura Mardini. Two shrines are for Maheshvari and Matrikas Brahmani and
the other 64 are dedicated to the yoginis. This temple is believed to be the oldest yogini
temple in India.
Eastern and Southern Temples at Khajuraho

Among the temples in the east and south groups are also comprise noteworthy complexes
(the temples of Ghantai, Parshvanath, Adinath, Shantinath, Dulhadeo, Chaturbhuja. The four
Jain temples lie among the Eastern group of temples. These include the Adinath, Shantinath,
Parsvanath and Ghantai temples, which were constructed under the reign of the Chandela
rulers.
The eastern group contains the Parsvanath temple, a large Jain structure noted for the
detailed sculptures on the northern outer wall. Other notable temples in this group are the
Ghantai and Adinath temples and the three Hindu temples of Brahma, Javari and Vamana,
the last of which is adorned with a variety of sensuous sculptures. the southern group
includes the two temples of Duladeo and Chaturbhuj.
Parsvanath Temple (in the eastern group of Temples) is largest of the Jain temples in
Khajuraho. It is noted for its spectacular tiered construction and intricate sculptures. It
belongs to the Eastern group of temples and its architecture is quite similar to that of the
Hindu temples here. The temple is believed to have been constructed in the 10th century
during the rule of Dhangadeva (950-999) of the Chandela dynasty. It was previously devoted

14
to the first tirthankara (religious saint) of the Jains, Adinath. However, in 1860, the image of
Parsvanath was put in.
The temple attracts visitors for its intricate architecture and its walls depict the images of
elephants, sea nymphs and lions. Though it is a Jain temple, one can see images of Hindu
deities like Vaishnav as well, on its walls. The temple has some key architectural features
like a couple of axial projections at its two ends called the ardh mandapa (the hall) to the east
and a small shrine to the west called the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum).
Dulhadev Temple (in the southern group of temples) was built by the Chandelas in 1130,
this temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and houses a lingam (phallic symbol honoring Shiva).
Its architecture is quite fascinating and the temple has five small chambers and a closed hall.
The finishing on the idols is beautiful and shows the skill of the craftsmen of that time. The
temple walls and ceilings boast heavily intricate carvings and visitors are often left
mesmerised by the stone-carved images on the walls. Attractive figurines of apsaras
(celestial nymph) and other mythological figures also adorn its walls. Dulhadev is another
name for Lord Shiva in this region that refers to the lord as a 'dulha' or bridegroom.
Historians consider it to be one of the last temples built by the Chandelas.
Deor Kothar

Deor Kothar (200 kilometers east of Khajuraho) is a Buddhist site said to have been built
under the patronage of Mauryan king, Ashoka, and dates back to 3rd century B.C. Stretching
for almost 3 kilometers, the complex, which is believed to have once been a bustling
commercial town on the trade route called Dakshinapatha, was discovered in 1982. Several
structures were excavated here, including monasteries, a water channel system, an ancient
pathway, and 30 stone stupas, four brick stupas, potsherds of black polished ware, which was
the pottery of everyday use between 700 and 300 B.C. One of the pillars excavated here has
an inscription that says it was erected in the memory of Lord Buddha.
The architecture of Deor Kothar is quite interesting and the complex boasts four stupas, the
most ever found at a site of this period. The bricks used are of various shapes such as a
twirling lotus, a simple flower pot on a three-tiered pedestal (the carving of which shows
traces of early Buddhist art) and a conical lotus bud. These can be seen on the railing posts of
the largest brick stupa rising to a height of 30 feet.
The site was discovered by PK Mishra and Ajit Singh in 1982 and it was declared a place of
national importance by the Government of India in 1988. Today, it is being preserved and
conserved by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Panna and Panna National Park

Panna National Park (40 kilometers south Khajuraho) in central India harbors many species
of wildlife including tigers, sambar and chitral deer, porcupines, and leopards and cover 200
square miles. It has a fairly large population of 30 to 40 sloth bears. It has a lot of humans.
There are 15 villages within the park and 50 just outside it. A number of villagers in the area
of the park have been attacked by sloth bears.
The park was once a raja’s hunting ground. There are a number of caves in par whose walls
are adorned with ancient paintings. The number of tigers in increasing. The tigers often roam
outside the park and the effort to save them has included efforts outside the park. Illegal
sandstone mines that fragments the tiger’s habitat and polluted the water in the park have

15
been closed down. The rangers have motorcycles and a troop carrier which has enabled them
to battle poachers more effectively
With the meandering Ken river and spectacular waterfalls, the national park attracts both
wildlife enthusiasts and adventure seekers. One can spot the gharial, a huge reptile of the
crocodile family found only in the Indian subcontinent, and a variety of flora and fauna here.
Spend a day or two here, and explore the park in a jeep or on the back of an elephant. Earlier,
the park was the hunting ground of the erstwhile rulers of Panna, Bijawar and Chhatarpur
states. The Panna National Park is the 22nd Tiger Reserve of India.
Panna was the capital of Maharaja Chhatrasal’s kingdom in 17th century. The town, meaning
emerald, is a diamond mining center. Panna is famous for its huge Palladian-style Pajgarth
Palace.

II
TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION

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The construction of temple is a complex and creative process with a blend of mathematics, logic,
geography, geology, science, ecology, art, sculpting, music, light & sound, social sciences and
astrology. One of the most important surviving records about the construction of the temple is in the palm leaf
manuscript which explains the details of the building operation of 13th century Surya Temple at Konark, Orissa.
This record shows the list of workmen, their salaries, and rules of conduct, and provides an account over several
years of various building operations. The temple construction can be broadly divided into three phases; Logistics,
Pre construction and Construction.
Aspects in Temple Construction

There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple
construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The
temple's acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi.
Temple construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by
acarya and shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha.

This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of different
levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined based on the size
of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama, kheta,
kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is decided.
Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The entire
arrangement is called grama vinyasa.

17
 Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be known,
since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main deity. Then
wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon (vigraha),
pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha). The tests to determine quality of stone
are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three kinds of stone, male female and neuter. When hit
with an iron rod if the stone produces good sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the
main icon. If it produces sound but not spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it
produces neither, it is neuter and should be used for platform. There are various standards for the
relative proportions of image, gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various
parts of the vigraha. The units for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a multiple
of angula and angula is a multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit, the
multiplicity and relative sizes are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs of
images are specified. The finer specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also
mentioned. Generally the standard is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male
deity, navatala (nine talas) for His consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta.

Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals,
encourage art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for pilgrims
from other towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc.

Town planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in
the agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different
capacities and also direct their work towards a higher goal.

Steps in Temple Construction

The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed, and it could be expressed in short
as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha".
The details of steps involved vary from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in
temple construction:

1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should
be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water
mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the
temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves
creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of
main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
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11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like:

 Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals
 Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud
 Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate
 Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment.
 Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens
 Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements
 Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to
destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town)
 Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)
 Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika.
 Kalasasthapana: Installing kalasam
 Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala
 Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa as god and propitiating deities through fire
 Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes of the god-image, installing it and giving it life.

Then specific worship is done to deity, as prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is
followed by astabandhana and kumbhabhisheka.

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Temple Design

From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional
temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially
determines the fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula,
which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the
nakshatra of the village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the
name of the village with the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the
nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple. This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of
the inside of the sanctum and the distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is
defined in multiples and fractions of this basic unit.

The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the temple structure because iron
is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could
attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are used in the structure, so that only
the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially significant stages in the
temple construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces
of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small
interstices between the stones, adding to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are
said to glow in the inner worlds and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and
Devas.

20
 The ground plan is described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based
on a strict grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious
significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid,
usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square
belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to
each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares
cover the gods of lower rank. Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting -
and the idol in garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc.

The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by
the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical
appearance of the temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course
impossible for humans until quite recently.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the
temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have
its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a
series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. A
typical temple consists of the following major elements

1. an entrance, often with a porch

2. one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls
3. the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber'
4. the tower build directly above the garbagriha.

Significance of the number eight in temple design

Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally
conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr.
V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the
vibration of the space-consciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this
vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said
to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms.
When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form.
This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam.

Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science
derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight
and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition.
This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical
Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human
form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle
level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair,
neck, kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body
and, when added on to the body's eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units.
Traditionally these nine units are applied in making sculptures of Gods.

21
Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the talam
of our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find
this consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs,
the person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss.
Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space
that will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space,
which in turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm
of the indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being.

The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala

The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the unmanifest and
unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a
fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the
circle from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to
life in its growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding
life, life's form and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can
be derived: the triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-
purusha-mandala-vastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala.

The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him,
and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building.

In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on

planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the
mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and
execution of the vastu-purusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the
physical foundation supports the weight of the building.Based on astrological calculations the
border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirty-two smaller squares called
nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of
the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and
their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent
cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled over
by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four
directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the sun-
east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or
pure space. The vastu-purusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute
the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site,
along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be
determined.

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The ground breaking ceremony

From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical
and horizontal dimensions of the temple.

The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground plan and the
vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental
patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the
curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the
main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and
auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana,
the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls.

The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding
Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of
Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The
ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a
golden box is placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the
box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of
the gold box are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras,
the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in
written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding Devata.

The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala.
The mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the
mandala and therefore the two are inseparable.

In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then
surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in
which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine

23
planets and are composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red
coral, cats-eye and jade.

A gold lid with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box
following which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers
clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of
the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat,
barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras.
http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Temple_Construction by samiksha —

The process of Temple Construction

2.1.1 Logistics

Logistics mainly deals with team selection, budgeting, material sourcing and finding effective
ways of transportation.

2.1.1.1 Team selection

The first and foremost step of a temple construction is to select the team which comprises of
people from various guilds. The Sthapati who is the chief architect was selected
by Karta himself. The Sthapati should have complete knowledge of the Silpa Shastras, the
traditional sciences, mathematics and Puranas, paintings, music and yoga. He should be fit to
direct the construction to all the other members engaged in the construction work. As a person he
should be kind, joyous, and free from hatred and jealousy, truthful, with control over the senses,
focused in mind, and also free from greed, carelessness and disease.

Rest of the team comprising of the stone craftsmen, black smiths and other workmen for leveling
and cleaning are selected by the Sthapati.

Sutragrahani, the Engineer who is usually the son or disciple of the Sthapati. His role is to
perform all the work assigned by the Sthapati and also he should have knowledge of layout and
proportionate measurements (vertical and horizontal) by chord and rod. There are two types of
stone craftsmen who work for the temple, one who is a carver and the other is the modeler. The
carvers are called Takshaka. One set of Takshaka work at a quarry site. They cut the stones and
send it for carving to the other set of Takshaka. The modelers are called Bardhakin, the mason or
carpenter who fits and places together what the Takshaka has carved and by adding to the
finished work.

Apart from stone craftsmen there are people like black smiths who does iron casting, other
workmen who does leveling and cleaning of ground, erecting the scaffolding, transporting the

24
 stones, managing camp and accounts. All these members are selected by Sthapati and minister
together.Fig-11 is illustrative of the phases of temple construction and the role of the craftsmen.

2.1.1.2 Budgeting

The budget is estimated by the Sthapati according to the scale of the temple. Generally it is
the Karta or the king who bore all the expenses to acquire religious merit. Sometimes if the
construction work require huge amount of money then a message is spread everywhere for
donations. Traders usually donate for such work.

2.1.1.3 Material sourcing and quarrying

Material sourcing is done by Sthapati. Usually the Sthapati has knowledge about all the nearby
quarries from which stones can be easily transported to the construction site. Stone was
considered as the most sacred building material. As per the Shastras, the temple made in brick is
hundred times more worthy than wood and the temple constructed in stone is ten thousand times
more worthy than in brick.

Stone selected for the construction should be of even color, hard and perfect, pleasing to touch.
The quality and type of stone is very important according the place where they are applied in the
construction. Hard and even stones are used for the plinth, columns, beams and slabs. Supple
stones are used for the construction of sculptures, idols, carvings etc. The preferred stones for the
construction were then quarried. These quarries were mostly located in the nearby areas only in
some cases the specific stones were transported from far of distances. Stones were quarried using
wooden wedges that are driven into the rocks and then wetted to cause expansion. This in turn
causes the rocks to crack and are thus cut by subsequent application of pressure and
dressed. Silpa Shastras classify stones according to six varieties. (Vastusutra Upanishad:The
essence of form in sacred art, 2000)

 Hiranyarekhika: Stone with golden curve line. It is of bad quality not to be used for image
making or temple construction.
 Samavarna: When the entire stone is of one colour.It is considered to be of best quality
 Tamra: Very hard stone of copper red color should not be considered. When the stone is not
severed from the rock it can only be used on walls for carving mythological scenes but not for
main sculptures
 Dhatuputita: When the stone has metal like sores of smoky color it is worst for image making.
 Vajralabadha: When between the layers of the stone soft mineral lines of yellow color shine;
they are always considered to be inferior.

The principal stones that have been utilized temple building in Odisha are Sandstone, Laterite,
Khandolite, and Chlorite. The different technical terms, in the local tongue, of the different
varieties of the above stones are given below with the names of temples where they are used..

25
 Sandstone:

 Bagda Kanda: A coarse grained white or yellow sandstone. There are mainly two varieties
available; Naraj Bagda and Mota Bagda. The former is harder and more fine grained than the
later and has been used in Lingaraj, Bramheswar and Yameswar temples of Bhubaneswar. The
latter has been used in the temples of Siddheswar and Nayakeswara.
 Raja rania Kanda: Fine grained yellowish sandstone with following sub classes.
 Lal Raja-rania,HaladiaRaja-rania,Dhala misa Raja-rania,Kaya Raja-rania. First two varieties
have been used in the temples of Mukteswar, Gauri and Rajarani. Last two varieties being harder
and strong have been used in lintels and architraves of several temples like Bramheswar,
Mukteswar, and Rajarani etc.
 Khadia Kanda:is a white sandstone resembling chalk. This variety has been found in the temples
of Ananta vasudeva,Parvati and Parsurameswar etc.It is divided into following classes; Sapha
Khadia Kanda,Phul Khadia Kanda,Balia Khadia
 Rang Dalima: It is reddish white sandstone which is very hard for dressing. This variety is
noticed at Lingaraj and Vaitala temple. It is divided into following classes;Sapha Rang
Dalima,Matia Rang Dalima,Rangdalima misrita Khadia kanda

Apart from Sandstone other stones that are used are Laterite or Mankada Pathara, soap stone
or Khadipathara, slightly harder greenish chlorite or Kochila Pathara and harder pinkish
Khandolite or Sahana Pathara or Baula Pathara and the hardest of all black granite or Muguni
Pathara. While Laterite has been chiefly used for boundary walls other stones are used for image
making. Khandolite is used for temple construction as well.

2.1.1.4 Transportation

In the past stones were transported to the temple sites mostly by water ways. Mukhya
Sthapati used to work out waterways through which stones should be transported. Boats covered
with planks were used for the transport of stones on rivers and canals. See Figure-12 for the
probable water ways to transport stones from various hills to the temple sites of Puri, Konark and
Bhubaneswar. Kalasagadi and Sangi were employed to transport heavy stones on land. Poles
with hanging ropes carried on shoulders are called Sangi and thick plank on rollers drawn by the
elephants is called Kalasagadi (Refer Figure-13). It is suggested by K.C.Panigrahi in his book
“Archaeological remains of Bhubaneswar “that in case of temples like Lingaraj where the quarry
site is very near to the temple site inclined planes were made from the quarry to drag the heavy
stones.

2.1.2 Pre construction

Pre construction majorly deals with site selection and orientation of the temple.
The Sthapati along with the Brahman place the temple with respect to the universe of which it is
a part.

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2.1.2.1 Site Selection

The initial step of construction of the temple is the selection of land/site. According to treaties
“The Gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near and in towns with
pleasure gardens.”Thus most of the ancient surviving temples were built on the mountain peaks,
lush valleys, grooves, near the water body etc where the environment was considered to be
suitable for the adobe of Gods. The essential necessity is the existence of water, which can be
present naturally or at least as a symbolic representation. The reason of constructing a temple
near the river not only has religious significance but also has functional aspect to it. In one hand
it becomes easy to transport the stones via water route and in the other hand it helps in sufficing
the water requirement of the members who stay encamped in the construction site. Even after
completion of the temple water bodies can be used for supplying water for daily rites of deity
and to the pilgrims.

While examining this principle against the nine sample temples it is found that out of the nine
temples Singhanath temple is situated on an island in the river Mahanadi and Durga temple of
Baideswar is situated on the banks of Mahandi.Varahi temple is situated near to the banks of
Prachi river and it also has several other water bodies around it. Other six temples are situated
around Bindusagar. This proves the functional understanding of the Sthapatis because of which
they managed to create magnificent temples in the days when there was no advanced
transportation system. (Refer Figure-14)

2.1.2.2 Soil test

Shastras classify soils in four categories; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra and this
classification is based on the color, scent and taste of the soil. Brahmin soil is white in color; it
smells as clarified butter and is astringent to taste. Kshatriya soil is blood red in color, smells like
blood and is bitter to the taste Vaishya soil is yellow in color, smells like alkaline earth and is
sour to the taste. Sudra soil is black in color, smells like faeces and has taste like
wine. Brahmin and Kshatriya soils are preferred over Vaishya soil and construction on Sudra soil
was prohibited. If the Sthapati could not determine the caste from color, smell or taste then a
simple test used to be done. Sesame seeds should be sown on the ground; if sprouts appear after
3, 4, 5 or 6 nights then the soil is Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya & Sudra respectively. If the
seeds appear after 7 nights it belongs to caste of ‘Pisachas’ and one should not build on such
soil.It is understood from the above description that the soil assigned to Brahmins is sandy in
character, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are ferruginous and rocky where the former being more
rocky are good for construction, soil assigned to the Sudra is the worst of all being black cotton
soil.

Soil filled with bones and ashes has been forbidden to be selected as a suitable site for a temple.
The reason is soil made up of these things never attain solidity and homogeneity necessary for
the base of a structure. Apart from this several other tests used to be conducted to determine
whether the site is suitable for temple construction or not. All these tests were done to determine

27
 Soil bearing capacity
 Water retaining capacity
 Consolidation
 Oxygen content in the atmosphere and soil
 Indication of previous habitation

2.1.2.3 Sanku Sthapana and Naga Bandhana

The process of establishing the orientation of a temple binds it to the earth, the sun and their
relationship at the moment of origination. The method by which orientation was undertaken was
based on the ‘Indian circle method’ and was based on the use of an instrument known as ‘Sanku
yantra’ or the ‘gnomon’, which is an ancient device for determining the east-west direction as
well as for knowing time (Hardy, 1995)

After determining the building site, it should be cleansed and purified. For marking it out with
the thread, a peg (Sanku) should be fixed in the centre of the ground. In the middle of the ground
a point is hollowed out to the depth of twelve Angulas and the peg made of wood or a piece of
Bamboo is put into that hole. Below are the steps followed by the Sthapatis to determine the East
–West axis.

 Step 1: A gnomon is made by putting a specified object in the ground and by drawing a circle
around it.
 Steps 2 and 3: The place where the shadow cuts the circle, in the morning and in the evening, is
marked and a line is drawn between those two points. From these points two circles are made.
 Step 4: On the place where these two new circles cut each other a new line is drawn. This line
represents the North – South axes.
 Step 5: From the places where the North – South axes cuts the first circle two new circles are
drawn.
 Step 6: A line, connecting the cutting points of the two new circles, is drawn. This line represents
the East – West axes.

Because of the irregularity of the sun’s motion in the ecliptic, various rules have been laid down
for the purpose of rectifying its variations. Time plays an important role here. In one explanation
for instance: “The place where the shadow of the gnomon projects, on two successive days at the
same hour, being marked, the difference between those two days, is taken as the variation of the
shadow for sixty ghaticas or twenty-four hours. The interval between the times at which the
western and eastern points were marked on the preceding day is multiplied by the difference of
the shadow measured for one day, and the product being divided by sixty Ghaticas, the result
will give the difference of the shadow for the given time; it will then be only necessary to
remove the eastern or western point so far towards the south or north, according as the difference
of the shadow on the second day may be in either of those directions, or as the sun is in the
southern or northern solstice. In ancient times education was given great importance in ancient
and medieval India. Many centres of learning functioned in the premises of temples or close to

28
these shrines. One such important educational institution of the ancient Tamil country was called
the ghatika.
These ghatikas functioned during the reign of the Pallava kings and even later. Though there
were many ghatikas across the far-flung Pallava kingdom, the best-known was in the hoary city
of Kanchipuram, the capital of the Pallavas. Kanchipuram (75 km from Chennai) is even today
one of the most sacred and historical places in India.

Various explanations have been given for the Samskrit word ‘ghatika’. According to Dr. C.
Minakshi, a great scholar of Pallava history, the word originates from the root `ghat’ which in
Sanskrit means `to strive after’, and ghatika was an institution where students stove after higher
knowledge.

Once the cardinal directions were established the process called Naga Bandhana started. It is an
intricate and ancient method in Silpa Shastra, by which the temple’s direction and the auspicious
moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. This ancient science guides the
architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures in Odisha.

According to the Silpa Shastras, it is imagined that a great serpent (Naga) lies encircling every
building site. Its body is divided into 8 equal positions. The serpent moves round and round in a
clockwise direction .Its head lies at the eastern point of the compass in the middle of the month
of the Ashwina. It takes a year to come round to the same point. The orientation of temple was
decided according to the Naga’s position and position of doors was fixed accordingly. Door on
the eastern side is generally considered as auspicious as the sun rises from the east and a door on
the eastern side would help the first rays of sun to touch the feet of the deity. Vastu puja and
other ceremonies should not be done in Sravana and Bhadra as these are rainy seasons. Building
operation should be done in the light half of the month and especially in the months in which
days are longer than nights.

When the orientations of the sample temples were examined it was found that Konark, Rajarani,
Lingaraj and Singhanath face east ,Vaitala faces south and rest four temples face west. But
surprisingly except Konark none of the other temples oriented towards true E-W axis. And the
possible reason of deviation from true cardinal directions could be the connection between
the Nakshatra of the Karta and the Naga’s position on the auspicious day of construction
determined the orientation of the temple to acknowledge the supremacy of the Karta. Another
possible reason could be the sun azimuth. In Bhubaneswar, the sun apparent azimuth at sunrise is
roughly estimated at lying between 62º (at the summer solstice) and 118º (at the winter solstice).
This means that in June, the sun rises 28º north of true east, while in December, it rises 28º south
of it. It is only around the equinoxes, in September and March, that the sun rises due east. This
might have resulted in deviation in determining the true cardinal directions. Other reasons that
came out during this examination were the location of water bodies, hills, settlement and
religious affiliation could have influenced the orientation of the temples.

2.1.2.4 Scale Model

29
Once the orientation is established a scaled model is made by the Sthapati for Karta’s approval.

2.1.2.5 Ground Layout

The Silpa text describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: the Square (Chaturasra);
Rectangle (Ayata);Trapezium(with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata); Circle (Vritta);
Elliptical (kritta vritta); triangular(Dwaja);diamond or rhombus (Vajra) ; Arrow Shara);umbrella
(Chatra) ; fish (Meena);back of a tortoise(Kurma);conch(Shankha);crescent(Ardha-chandra);
pot (Kumbha);sword (Khadga); and lotus (Kamala)

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back
of a tortoise (Kurma), pot (Kumbha), conch (Shankha) and lotus (Kamala) are recommended
only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish
(Meena), diamond or rhombus (Vajra) and sword (Khadga) are recommended for Devi temples.
The rest of the layouts are for other (lesser) deities. But all texts generally agree that the square
or the rectangular shapes of layout are the best and most auspicious. In case the layout is
rectangular, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It is also
said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha
Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (Pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. As the temple is a link
between the physical world of man and divine world of God, to connect them the plan of cosmos
were graphically copied in the foundation of the temples called as the Vastu Purusha
Mandala.The Vastu Purusha Mandala is derived from three separate words each having a
specific meaning where Vastu refers to physical environment, Purusha refers to energy, power
or cosmic being, and Mandala is the diagram or chart (Md Rian I, 2007).

The basic form of the Vastu Purusha Mandala is the square and square is the important and ideal
geometric form in Hindu philosophy, which represents the earth. All the necessary forms like the
triangle, hexagon octagon and circle, etc can be derived from the square. The four sides of the
square represent the four cardinal directions. The square also symbolizes the order, the
completeness of endless life and the perfectness of life and death (Michell, 1988).
The Mandala is actually a square subdivided into smaller squares in the form of a grid with each
square unit clearly marking the areas of respective gods. The most commonly used Mandala is
the square divided into 64 and 81 squares. Mostly the square of the Mandala on its outer
periphery are divided into 32 smaller squares, in accordance to the astrological calculation
called Nakshatra, representing the constellations or the position of planets through which moon
passes in its monthly path. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares is symbolical to the
recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon (See Figure-18) The four
directions lie outside the Mandala which represents the meeting of the earth and the universe as
well as the movement of the sun from east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern
hemispheres. The central portion of the Mandala is the place for the Brahma, the creator, and the
rest squares are the position of other Gods as per their relevance.

30
 The ground plan is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. When placed on
the building site the Vastu Purusha Mandala determines the positions and orientations of the
temples and the time for commencing the construction.Figure-18 illustrates Vastupurusha
Mandala in temple Parsurameswar

From the diagram of the Vastu Purusha Mandala the Sthapati next proceeds to develop the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple.

 A block of stone 8 digits in length, breadth& height should be taken.

 A lotus should be carved on it with 8 petals. A hole should be dug at the heart or stomach of
the Vastu Naga and the stone should be placed there pointing towards the 8 cardinal points of the
compass.
 Of the projected height of the temple 1/3rd should be dug (in depth) in a slant towards the middle
of the ground. Inside the excavation of the ground at the level of the plinth(Garbhapitha),the
beautiful ground plan should be made.

After this stone cutting, carving, assembling starts to construct the temple as per the approved
model.

2.1.3 Construction

2.1.3.1 Stone cutting and Carving

Quarried stones are cut into pieces of suitable size. Sometimes carving is done after assembling
the stone and sometimes it is done before hand considering the size and nature of the sculpture.
The first step of carving is to determine the height of the main shrine. The primary measure for
images is known as the Padimanam or erect postural measure. This measurement refers to the
height of the image taken from the foot to the top of the head. It does not include the head dress,
crown or pedestal. The erect postural measure has to be first determined and from this height, the
seated height has to be determined.

The principle measure is determined as the rhythmic related measure to any one of the following:

 The size of the lingam consecrated in the sanctum

 The inner width of the sanctum
 The width of the principle doorway of the sanctum
 The height of the pillar
 The height of the patron
 The outer length of the sanctum

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 There are three broad classifications of images: Sculpture in the round, in bold relief and
representation on a plain surface. Based on the personality of the image, it may be further
classified into three types;

 Satvikam-calm,tranquil,ethereal,luminous,
 Rajasam-energetic,heroic,mobile,
 Tamasam-aggressive, violent and disruptive.

For every sculpture there is a clear rhythmic grammar set out by the Shastras. This is the use
of Talam or rhythmic proportions. It is this factor which makes it possible for the sculptor to
create both minute and gigantic masterpieces with equal ease. There are 10 Talas in all. Each has
several sub-divisions to accommodate the proportional hierarchy between man, woman, God,
animal etc. (Refer Figure-22)

There are six kinds of measurements including the main height of the image, its breadth,
thickness and circumference or outer dimension. There is further the measurement of spaces in
between the sections of the body, for example the spaces between two feet. All calculations are
made using the plumb line. Traditionally the instrument used to draw these plumb lines is called
“Pralamba-phalaka” The central plumb line is called the Bramhasutram.In relation to this, the
shift of the various parts of the body are noted. To facilitate composition of an image, it is
essential to have a grid of both horizontal and vertical axes. Thus apart from the central line in
front, there is a central line running at the rear and the either side of the image. There is another
line which passes through the centre of the body starting from the midpoint of the head. These
five lines of measurement are called Panchasutram.

2.1.3.2 Assembling

Stones are then assembled together by intricate interlocking system. At times stones are carved
and then assembled or first assembled and then carved according to the instruction of Sthapati.
Assembling is done by Chara or scaffolding. Figure-25 shows different types of scaffolding used
in the construction of Sun temple, Konark. (New lights on the Sun temple of Konark)

2.1.3.3 Tools and equipments

The basic tools, hammer and different types of chisels are used for cutting and carving of the
stones. The tools are made locally and sharpened regularly in the work yard by the blacksmiths.
Many other instruments were also used for construction.

The names of the stone in the local tongue are taken from

32
33
Vastu Shastra:-
It is one of the great arts of India. The science of constructing temples, houses are totally based
on Vastu Shastra. “Vaasthu” (the earth) is called “Vastu”. Thus the art of designing &
constructing the temple is completely based on “VASTU SHASTRA”.
Thus “Sompura” families are involved in the traditional art of “Temple Architecture” since
centuries. Temple Architecture is one of the world’s traditional & ancient art of India. We are
one of the leading architecture & manufacturing firms practicing successfully since last 50 years.
Thus the art of designing & constructing the temple is completely based on “VASTU
SHASTRA”. Thus “Sompura” families are involved in the traditional art of “Temple
Architecture” since centuries.

Temples of Delwädä –

The contribution made by Vimalshä, Vastupäl, and Tejpäl to the architecture of Jain
temples is part of our great heritage.

Mount Abu is a beautiful town on a mountain in the state of Rajasthan. Within the town, there
are two magnificent Jain temples, known as the Delwädä Temples. The carvings in both of these
temples are breathtaking. The carvings in the marble ceilings of these temples are so minute and
intricate that it is difficult to copy the design even on a piece of paper. These temples are
regarded as “poetry in marble”. Vimalshä built the first temple in the 11th century A.D. at a cost
of 180 million rupees. The second temple, called Lunig Vasahi, was built by two brothers,
Vastupäl and Tejpäl, in the memory of their elder brother. This temple was built in the 13th
century A.D. at a cost of 120 million rupees.

34
 The stories associated with the architects of these two temples are presented here. Vimalshä The
Solanki dynasty was the golden period for the state of Gujarat in which the authority and
prosperity of the state reached its peak. The credit for putting Gujarat in this position mainly
goes to the King’s chancellors and commanders, who were at the helm of affairs. It is interesting
to know that many of the chancellors and some of the commanders of that period were Jains.
Vimalshä was a very capable and outstanding commander in several respects. King Mulräj, the
founder of the Solanki dynasty, had an advisor named Vir Mahattam. His wife’s name was
Virmati. They had three sons named Nedh, Vimal, and Chähil. While they were still very young,
their father renounced worldly life and became a monk. Their mother then went to her parents’
place and raised her sons with love and care. Nedh was very intelligent and grew up to be a wise,
considerate youth. Vimal was bold and smart. He liked horseback riding and archery. He steadily
gained expertise in those arts, and in due course turned out to be a wellknown equestrian and an
accomplished archer.

As the sons grew older, their mother brought them back to the capital city of Pätan so that they
could pursue a career of their choice. In line with their interests, Nedh joined the royal court and
Vimal joined the army. Both of them quickly began to rise in the ranks and became known for
their outstanding capabilities. Since Vimal in particular was handsome and brave, he impressed a
multimillionaire of Pätan, who had a beautiful daughter named Shridevi. He thought Vimal
would be a perfect husband for his daughter. Vimal agreed, and Shridevi and Vimal got married.
Luck continued to favor both the brothers. During the reign of King Bhimdev, who came to the
throne in 1021 A.D., Nedh became the chancellor and Vimal secured the position of commander.
Vimal was fortunate to get a beautiful, loving wife and a high ranking military position at a
relatively young age. Moreover, because of his amicable nature, he soon won the hearts of
everyone and came to be known as Vimalshä.

Some people at the court could not bear the good fortune of Vimalshä. They were jealous and
began to look for his drawbacks. They noticed that Vimalshä would not bow to anyone, not even
the King, before offering obeisance to the omniscient Jain Tirthankars. Thereupon, they started
telling King Bhimdev that Vimalshä was arrogant due to his position and was not even willing to
bow to the King. They said his ambition knew no bounds and he might even try to acquire the
throne. Unfortunately, Bhimdev started to believe those courtiers and began to look at Vimalshä
with suspicion. When Vimalshä learned of the disaffection of King Bhimdev, he decided to leave
Pätan. Accordingly, he went to mount Abu (which was known as Chandrävati at that time) with
his followers. There he learned that Dhandhuk, the chief of Chandrävati, was aspiring to become
independent from the sovereign King Bhimdev. Vimalshä attacked him with the force at his
command. Dhandhuk could not fight him and fled. Vimalshä thus occupied Chandrävati. He had
no ambition to become the King and took possession of Chandrävati in the name of King
Bhimdev and considered himself the governor of the place.

Vimalshä was now happily passing his days at Chandrävati with his wife. Shridevi was a very
affectionate lady and made him happy in every respect. They had no children. Being religious

35
minded, however, the couple considered it to be the consequence of their unwholesome karma.
Once, they happened to meet Dharmaghosh-suri, who was the well-known Jain Ächärya of that
time. Vimalshä regularly listened to his sermons, which made him even more religiously
oriented. As he remembered his involvement in past wars, he felt very sorry for the violence and
sins he had committed. He sincerely repented for it. In view of his genuine repentance, the
Ächärya asked him to construct a temple at Chandrävati and make it a center of pilgrimage to
help atone for the violence caused during the wars. Vimalshä was pleased to hear this suggestion
and made up his mind to construct a grand temple. He was also a devotee of Ambikä Devi, the
goddess in service of Tirthankar Neminäth. He decided to invoke her in order to get her
blessings. The goddess was pleased with the earnestness of his worship and asked him what he
wanted. He asked for a son and the capability to construct a monumental temple at Chandrävati.
However, the goddess asked him to select one of the two. Vimalshä opted for the temple.
Goddess Ambikä granted his wish.

Then Vimalshä selected a site for the temple on top of a mountain and bought the land for
45,360,000 gold coins. The foundation stone was laid with deep faith. However, it was not easy
to construct the temple. It was a Herculean task. Artisans were not locally available, there was no
road leading from the foot of the mountain to the top, and marble had to be brought from a great
distance. Vimalshä was determined to complete the project at any cost. He made all the
necessary arrangements for transporting the materials to the top and hired the best sculptors in
the country for carrying out the work. All possible care was taken to see that the artisans did not
face any difficulty, and the project did not encounter any problems. It took 14 years to finish the
project, and the temple was constructed at a cost of 185,300,000 gold coins.

The opening ceremony was performed with great fanfare and enthusiasm under the guidance of
Dharmaghoshsuri, Vardhamän-suri, and other Ächäryas. It is a spacious, marble temple. There
are highly artistic figures in its domes, arcs, and panels. The sculptures are exquisite. It would be
nearly impossible to bring out that sort of accuracy even in wax. The fact that the artists have
done it in marble is marvelous, and draws the instantaneous admiration of every visitor. These
types of sculptures are not found anywhere else in the world. It is said that Vimalshä paid the
artists in gold. The artisans collected the marble dust that they had carved for the day and
brought it in and had it weighed. The person in charge would give them gold equal to the weight
of stone powder! His generosity and the beauty of the temple have immortalized his name. It is
virtually a wonder of the world. Later on, Vimalshä led a Jain sangh to the Shatrunjay
Mountainlocated in the town of Pälitänä that cost 40 million gold coins. He constructed the
Vimal-vasahi temple there. It is located on the way to the main complex on the hill. It is a small
but equally exquisite temple. It is popularly known as Bhulbhulämani temple, meaning a maze
temple. He also constructed the well-known temples of Kumbhäriä on the Äräsur hill on the
northern border of Gujarat. Moreover, he is credited with the construction of a beautiful temple
in the capital city of Pätan. One successful but highly instructive anecdote is associated with his
later life. It is said that Shridevi had a dream in which she saw a goddess. The goddess asked her

36
to go to the temple along with her husband at midnight on a specific date and ask for whatever
they wanted. Both of them were eager to have a son and went to the temple to express their wish.
While they were waiting for midnight to arrive, they felt thirsty. Vimalshä therefore went to an
adjoining well to fetch water. Inside the well there were steps which went all the way down to
the water level. While he was going down the steps to get the water, someone asked him to pay
toll for taking water. Vimalshä was amazed to hear that and asked the person why he was
demanding toll to drink the water. The person replied that he was a descendent of the person who
had built the well. Since he was poor, he was collecting a toll for using the well. Vimalshä was
taken aback to hear that. He asked himself, “What would happen if one day some of my own
descendants tried to collect a toll for the temple that I have built?” He shuddered at the idea and
again asked himself whether it would be better in that case to remain without a child. He went up
and told his wife about the incident. She concurred with his thinking. At midnight when the
goddess asked them what they wanted, Shridevi replied that she did not want a child anymore.
Now, it was the turn of the goddess to be taken aback at the reply. Vimalshä narrated what he
had experienced and said that they wanted to remain childless.

Vastupäl and Tejpäl Two brothers, Vastupäl and Tejpäl, were ministers in the court of King Vir
Dhavala in Gujarat. Tejpäl was also a very outstanding commander of the army. Both brothers
made their name by their valor and faithfulness. They helped the King to conquer enemies and
maintain law and order in the kingdom. Tejpäl’s wife, Anupamä devi, was a wise and smart
woman who always helped her husband in family matters. She was sweet spoken and a very
religious and compassionate woman. Tejpäl had always respected her opinion. Once, the families
of both the brothers and many others went on a pilgrimage. They came to a small village. This
particular area was not regarded as very safe for the pilgrims because the road was frequented
with burglars. Thinking that they might meet some burglars on the way, the brothers decided to
bury and hide their wealth in a nearby area. They started digging a hole, but to their amazement,
they unearthed a big pot of jewels and coins from the ground. They simply did not know what to
do with this wealth. Tejpäl asked Anupamä devi what they should do with this immense wealth.
Anupamä devi had no hesitation in replying that this wealth had come from a deep trench, but
the right place for it was on a high mountain. This would spread the glory of Jainism. Thus, they
decided to take it to the top of the mountain and spend it there. The brothers decided to build a
temple on Mt. Abu. It is known as the Lunig Vasahi Temple. Tirthankar Neminäth Bhagawän’s
samavasaran has also been carved in this temple. Tejpäl had also dedicated two Gokhläs (niches)
for two women, one to commemorate his wife and the other to commemorate his brother’s wife
(sister-in-law). These niches are called “Deräni-Jethäni nä Gokhläs” (The wives of two brothers
are known as Deräni-Jethäni. Deräni is the younger brother’s wife and jethäni is the older
brother’s wife). They constructed many more temples of which only the Delwädä temple and the
Neminäth Temple of Mount Girnär exist today. However, the Lunig Vasahi Temple of Mount
Abu is similar to that of the Vimalshä Temple. Fifty-two deva kulikäs (subsidiary shrines) have
also been constructed on an elevated platform around the central temple, each with the statue of a
Tirthankar. Elephants were used to carry the marble to Mount Abu for the construction of the

37
temples. A place called Hasti Shälä is also built within the temple complex to commemorate the
contribution of elephants.

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 CHAPTER 3
Agama Shastra and The Role in Temple Construction

Unlike most religions that base their faith on one definitive set of guidelines and rules, Hinduism
does on confine itself to a single text, or a single interpretation or a single approach—which is
also why it is so vibrant and rich. Given this heterogeneous character, rules, regulation, norms
and guidelines of the Hindu way of worship, spirituality and all other aspects of the religion,
have to be seen, always, in a larger context.

Agama Shastra
Agama Shastra, a collection of ideas that lays down the rules for worship, temple building,
spirituality and rituals, has for long been a guideline for many people of the Hindu faith. It is a
collection of Sanskrit, Tamil and Grantha scriptures that contains, mainly, methods of temple
construction, idol creation, philosophical doctrines and meditative practices. As a compendium
of sorts that came into being after years of assimilation and from a variety of sources, the Agama
shastra as a whole cannot be dated; some parts of it being pre vedic while the others are post
vedic.

What is the Role of Agama Shastra in Temples Construction and Worship?

39
 Temple Construction

As the complete guide, Agama Shastra plays a very important role in consecration and
construction of holy places; most Hindu places of worship follow the tenets of the Agama
Shastra.

The Four Padas

While the Agama are many in number, each of them consists of four parts: Kriya Pada, Charya
Pada, Yoga Pada and Jnana Pada. While Kriya Pada expounds more tangible rules– rules of
construction, sculpting, carving consecration of Idols etc. the Jnana Pada deals with something
more lofty, the philosophy and spirituality of temple worship.

Temples and places of worship cannot be built arbitrarily or on the strength of some local notion,
for everything is laid down categorically in the Agama shastra. For example, for a pilgrimage the
three essentials are Sthala, Tirtha and Murthy, where the Sthala refers to the place of the temple,
the Tirtha signifies the temple tank and Murthy stands for the idol. There are rules in the Agama
Shastra for just about every aspect, including the smallest detail, from the positioning of the holy
figurine to the materials from which the temple is to be constructed.

Unlike the Vedic guidelines, that focus more on Havan Building, Agama Shastra dwells at
length on idols and figurines of the deities. It dwells in such detail that it is in places almost
like a scientific blue print for temple making.

Given how temples in India are spread, over a vast territorial space, it is amazing how Agama
Shastra is employed and followed throughout the majority of these temples, notwithstanding the
cultural and regional differences; perhaps, there is something divine about the Agama Shastra.
Sompura is a community of sculptors who are known as the men behind many beautiful Temples
in India. As Indian Architecture is a preserver of its tradition and culture, Sompuras as architect
are the founders. They have created zenith of architectures and have spread the art into the world.
They took the possibilities of hard rough rock cut architecture to quite unexpected extremes of
fragile and eye-catching beautiful sculptors.

40
 Who are the Architects of Temples
As great men think alike, whether contemporary or not, Treatise on sculpture and Architecture
has been written or at least inscribed on Earth in the form of creations, mostly by those actually
practising therein, across the world, whether in Greece or Rome, Babylonia or Egypt and so in
India or Iran. It basically inducts theory and practice in Architecture based on building of
palaces, edifices, Collosium, Pyramids, Halls, Minarets and Columns or so on and so forth. So in
this field, the school of thought emerges from practice, at the instance of great practitioners.

However, the Treatise in Temple Architecture is

unique in so far as it deals on palatial dwellings for
gods and goddesses or even celestial creatures. They
are known as Prasadas or Mandirs . Temple
Architecture is now widely known to the world and
accepted as a profession in its technical term while it
very much existed in Ancient India since the era of
vedas. The two basic architectural styles pertaining to
creation of temples, arising under the geographical
and cultural influences, in India are Nagara Shaily
(North Indian) and Dravidian Shaily (South Indian).

The Artisans and Architects involved in actual building of temples of above two styles hail from
communities associated with respective style (Shaily ). In Northern India, the Sompuras are
involved in designing and building mostly Nagar style of Temples.

Amongst the Sompura families involved in temple architecture, the family of Padmashree
Prabhashankarbhai Oghadbhai has been one of the leading practitioners of Nagar shaily of
Temple building and designing. The post independent era of India has witnessed the most
reputed and esteemed project of redesigning of Somnath Temple known as Somnath Maha Meru
Prasad, carried out and executed by him. He was indeed known as a learned protagonist of Nagar
shaily and for the benefit of posterity he inscribed what he knew, learned and practised in the
form of books, now regarded as classics. As such as many as twelve books on temple
architecture published during his lifetime are to his credit, still leaving some of the manuscripts.

The Artisans and Architects involved in actual building of temples of above two styles hail from
communities associated with respective style (Shaily ). In Northern India, the Sompuras are
involved in designing and building mostly Nagar style of Temples.

Amongst the Sompura families involved in temple architecture, the family of Padmashree
Prabhashankarbhai Oghadbhai has been one of the leading practitioners of Nagar shaily of
Temple building and designing. The post independent era of India has witnessed the most
reputed and esteemed project of redesigning of Somnath Temple known as Somnath Maha Meru
Prasad, carried out and executed by him. He was indeed known as a learned protagonist of Nagar
shaily and for the benefit of posterity he inscribed what he knew, learned and practised in the
41
form of books, now regarded as classics. As such as many as twelve books on temple
architecture published during his lifetime are to his credit, still leaving some of the manuscripts.

The heritage of Padmashree P.O. Sompura has proved

to be the heritage of Nagar Shaily, now being whole
heartedly carried out further by me, not only as his
grand son but a disciple to him and the Nagar Style
the perpetuated and developed.

Blessed by grand father and endowed by mercy of

omniscient gods, I have been able to associate with
different sects of religion viz. : Shaivette,
Swaminarayan, Jain etc.

During the Span of last two decades, I have planned, designed and executed projects of various
temples in India and abroad, the glimpses of which are depicted in this small book and they are
self explanatory.

While the esteemed readers and viewers as also patrons and well wishers of temple Architecture
would hopefully appreciate my modest contribution in this noble field of activity, it would not be
our of place to add that assignment of planning and designing Ram Janma Bhoomi is being
considered as a great opportunity to exhibit worth of our family wedded to Temple Architecture
not just for livelihood but charisma of life time achievement. It would be, to my mind, continuity
on a greater scale, of immense values in life as cherished on getting Best Architect of the year
1997 award or incorporation of my creation of Shri Akshar Purshottam Swaminarayan Temple at
London in Guineas Book of world record or appreciation of Akshardham at Gandhinagar by
viewers of the world, as also quite a few renowned projects like 108 Bhaktivihar or other
creations at Singapore or Pittsburgh, USA.The Sompura Brahminare a Hindu caste found in the
state of Gujarat and Rajasthan in India. They are a sub-group of
the Brahmin community.According to their traditions, the Sompura Brahmin are so named
because they were created by the god Chandra to perform sacred ceremonies called Som
Yajna for the god Shiva. They are concentrated in the town of Prabas Patan and form one of the
oldest Brahmin communities in Gujarat; they speak Gujarati.

Sompura Salat

Sompura Salat are a Hindu Brahmin community of Gujarat, which have branched off
from Sompura Brahmin community. They are found in southern Rajasthan, specially in
the Mewar region, their origin is said to be from Prabhas Patan famous for the Somnath temple.
The term "salat" is derived from the old term for a temple architect, they are group of people,
who took artistic and masonry works as an occupation and branched off from Sompura Brahmin
community. They have surnames like. However, Sompura Brahmin do not accept them as
Brahmins, they maintain clan exogamy as a strict rule for marriage. The community
is vegetarian in diet and avoid eating onions, white cucumber and lentils, they worship Ashapura
Mata as their clan deity. They are a Shivaite community and worship Shiva as chief deity,
however observe all other Hindu festivals like
Uthasini, Janamashtmi, Diwali but Shivaratri and Navaratri are the main festival for the
42
community, they are specialized in masonry works, artistic carvings and sculpting as well as
artistic stone shaping works in works of idol-making.

Among the notable architecture built by them are Hawa Mahal, the royal palace
near Wadhwan built for the Sultanate of Gujarat and more the Somnath Temple built after
independence of India. The community is found thorough out Gujarat but concentrated
in Saurashtra region. Outside India, population is found in United States of America.
Prabhashankar Oghadbhai of Palitana, had been one of the leading designers of Nagar style of
temples, he was awarded Padmashri. The design and building of the modern Somnath Temple,
known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, was executed by him. While their center of activity is in
Gujarat and Rajasthan, they now undertake temple architecture in different part of India, as well
as overseas, they follow texts written in 15th century such as Prasad Manjari, written during the
rule of Rana Raimal by brothers Mandan and Nathji. They hailed from Patan and were invited to
settle in Chittorgarh. During the past five centuries they have been involved in building and
restoration of numerous Jain temples in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan, as well as temples built
by Jains from there regions in other parts of India.

In 1992, Chandrakant Sompura, grandson of Prabhashankar had designed the Sompura

Akshardham temple in Gandhinagar. He was asked by Ashok Singhal, chief of the Vishwa
Hindu Parishad, to design and build the Ram Janmabhoomi temple; the world's largest Ram
Temple, a proposed replica of Angkor Wat to be built in Champaran, Bihar, is being designed by
Piyush SompuraC. P. Trivedi and Sons, founded by Chandulal P. Trivedi from the Sompura clan,
were responsible for the restoration of the Delwara Jain temples and the Jain temples at Jaisalmer
Fort and the Amar Sagar lake, they designed the Kirti Stumbh at
Hutheesing Wadi in Ahmedabad, Oswal Jain Temple at Nairobi, Jain Center, Leicester,
UK,Atma Vallabh Smarak and the Global Vipassana Pagoda at Gorai in northwest Mumbai.
Hitesh Sompura in Mumbai is a qualified Architect from Mumbai who computerised and
revolutionised Temple Architecture by writing English book "You & Architecture" and making
many short documentary films explaining about Indian Temple Architecture.

Awarded the “Best Architecture Award 2007” at London in 2007, built the first traditional
Shikharbandhi Jain Temple in Europe, Rajesh Sompura is now having more than 35 glorious
projects standing tall in India, UK, USA, Bangkok and Tanzania

Skand puran gives reference for the creation of Sompura Brahmins wide its chapter 21/22/23/24
The agnihotri brahmins from chandra lok came to prabhas with hemgarbha -the chief secretory
of moon god to conduct-perform a pratishtha yagya of the first temple of lord somnath and after
the yagya the moon god requested these Brahmins to stay there. These Brahmins stayed near
somnath so they are called Sompura brahmins. Generally the civilisations develops and moves
with the source of water worldwide, but the sompura brahmin is the only class who are stable
near somnath for at least 2000 years.
Like other Brahmin communities, they consist of gotras which are exogamous.
The Sompuras have 18 gotras. Eleven of them are spread all over Gujarat and Rajasthan and
practice temple architecture with shilp-shastra. Most of the other seven gotras stay
near Prabhas/Somnath; their main profession was and still is yajman vrutti (priestly services) in

43
the temples, particularly in and around Somnath. Only a Sompura Brahman may be a priest
in Somnath Temple. The community is moving very highly in society in both business and
education. They are strict vegetarians. They are group of people, who took artistic and masonry
works as an occupation and branched off from Sompura Brahmin community, they are
considered as Brahmin community and have surnames
like; Trivedi, Dave, Raval, Vyas, Acharya, They are specialized in masonry works, artistic
carvings and sculpting as well as artistic stone shaping works, especially in works of idol-
making. Among the notable architecture built by them are Hawa Mahal, the royal palace
near Wadhwan built for the Sultanate of Gujarat and more recently the Somnath
Temple built.after independence of India

Prabhashankar Oghadbhai of Palitana, had been one of the leading designers of Nagar style of
temples, he was awarded Padmashri. The design and building of the modern Somnath
Temple, known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, was executed by him. While their center of
activity is in Gujarat and Rajasthan, they now undertake temple architecture in different part of
India, as well as overseas, they follow texts written in 15th century such as Prasad Manjari,
written during the rule of Rana Raimal by brothers Mandan and Nathji. They originally hailed

from Patan, Gujarat.Hitesh Sompu ra

in Mumbai is a qualified Architect from Mumbai who computerised and revolutionised Temple

44
Architecture by writing English book "You & Architecture" and making many short
documentary films explaining about Indian Temple Architecture. Awarded the “Best
Architecture Award 2007” at London in 2007, built the first ever traditional Shikharbandhi Jain
Temple in Europe, Rajesh Sompura is now having more than 35 glorious projects standing tall in
India, UK, USA, Singapore, Bangkok, Nairobi and Tanzania.
Revivifying Tradition of Temple Architecture
Ar. Hitesh H Sompuraa, Proprietor, Hitesh Sompuraa Architects

Hutheesing Jain Temple

Temple architecture has a chronicle of over two thousand years. Over the years, the architectural
advancement took place within the boundaries of strict models derived solely from religious
considerations. In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all
regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Therefore a temple
architect is expected to oblige to keep the ancient basic proportions and rigid forms which
remained unaltered over many centuries. Sompuraa family is a 12 generations of hereditary
Temple Architects that has a saga of temple architecture for the last 500 years. Ar. Hitesh H
Sompuraa, Proprietor, Some architects like Hitesh Sompuraa Architects, who belongs to the
12th ancestry shares with Built Constructions, the nuances, elements and his dedication towards
this mystic architecture, called temple architecture.

45
The Sompuraas are following the tradition of designing temples according to "Vastu-Shastra" for
the last 12 generations. Their ancestors have designed and built great historic monuments such as
Somnath Temple, Ranakpur Temple, and Dilwara temples of Mount Abu hundreds of years ago.
Within their family, expertise of Temple Architecture is handed down and articulated orally from
generation to generation. Currently, there is no university in the world that offers any formal
training on the subject of Traditional Indian Architecture in which the Sompura families
specialise. Hence, it can be termed that this art of Temple Architecture is limited to the
Sompuraa families only.

"It is to an extent that wherever a traditional stone temple is to be built anywhere in the world, a
Sompuraa is consulted and preferred over any conventional architect. Hence, Sompuraa family
boasts of the skills that have passed on from generations. We have designed and built many

46
famous historic temples like Ranakpur Temple, Somnath Temple and we are still unrivalled in
the profession," says Ar. Hitesh Sompura.
His Architectural Journey
Hitesh still maintains and refers a 300 year old manuscript called "Vastu Kaustubh" written by
his forefather of the eighth generation late Shri Ganesh Sompuraa in the 17 th century. Hitesh's
grandfather and father (late Mr. Hariprasad H Sompuraa) were the leading temple architects of
India who had designed and built many temples in India like Jain Temple in Thane, Shri
Mahalaxmi Temple at Dahanu and Shri Vallabhnidhi Trust Haveli in Mumbai.
"I started marking temple sketches when I was just six years old under his grandfather's
guidance," he recalls. Even though he was well grooved in temple architecture, his passion to
transform ideas to architecture urged him to pursue his bachelor of architecture from Kamala
Raheja College, Mumbai. Apart from his mainline profession of temple architecture, his
expertise in modern architecture has allowed him to design shopping complexes, factory,
hospital, school, museum and other buildings with modern style and techniques. Just after his
graduation, he has built temples in Pune and Andhra Pradesh. When he travelled US, where only
European and Egyptian architecture are prevailing he decided make traditional Indian
architecture globally popular. His unparalleled dedication towards the cause made him to get
requests for guidance about temple architecture from different universities across the globe. "I
have been doing research and host exhibitions on this occult science. He has designed several
temples, to name a few, Shri Nija Sevashram Temple in Mumbai, an abstract form of a
traditional temple. ‘Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli in Balasinor, an example of how the
traditional Indian architecture can be combined with the modern style and materials. In addition,
Shri Mukteshwar Temple in Mumbai was refurbished Ar. Hitesh in the year 2006.
Science of temple architecture.

Vastu-Shastra defines rules and guidelines for architecture and construction of buildings like
houses, palaces, Forts and temples. The branch of Vastu-Shastra dealing with temples is known
as the ‘science' (scriptures) of Temple Architecture. It is based on various other
sciences/scriptures like astrology, astronomy, mythology, theology and sacred mathematics. The
temples which are made according to these rules are considered auspicious, authentic and
"scientific" temples.

The rules written in the scriptures of temple architecture are based on the profound study,
experience and logic. Besides these rules of planning, the temple architect must also consider
various rules of proportion and the rules for choice of materials too. However, the usage of steel
is generally avoided in temple construction as it is prone to get rusted in contact with water that
tends to make the structure less durable. A preferred method of construction is locking system in
which stones are interlocked into one another. This way of construction holds a lifespan of 800
years for the temple structure. Also, they are natural calamities resistant including earthquakes
and cyclones.

The scriptures of Temple Architecture have also set rules for the shapes and proportions of
different parts of the temple. Like the top of the spire of a temple should be half of its base and
equal to the diameter of its Ambalsala. This controls the form and weight of different parts of the
temple, which adds to the beauty, stability and lifespan of the temple. The numbers too have
significance in the scriptures based based on the constellations of astronomy. Here, each number

47
is divided into three groups—Groups of God, Human and Demon. Like a sanctum of 8 Feet 3
inches by 8 Feet 3 Inches belongs to the Group of God and this sanctum should face the east.
While the sanctum of 8 feet 4 inches by 8 Feet 4 Inches belongs to the group of demons and
therefore it must never be made.

Some rules of Temple Architecture are based on mythology especially the direction that a temple
has to face. According to this principle, temples all Gods must only face either East or West
except for Lord Hanuman's temples, which should always face South direction and that's because
the aim of his life was to find Sita who was captivated in Lanka (which is in the South direction).
Besides that, the temples of Gods like Yama and or Goddess Kali should be South facing. It is
believed that temples that lack these norms are neither auspicious nor fruitful for worshippers.
Vastu Shastra

According to mythology, Vastu-Shastra was created by the Lord Vishwa-Karma while creating
the universe. But, from a scientific viewpoint, a single author of the scriptures cannot be named.
The scriptures were created by the scholars and saints of the ancient times. This knowledge was
handed down orally from a Teacher to student and from one generation to the next. Then, in the
11th century, scholars wrote them down in the manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts are
available even today. Like my forefather of the eighth generation late Shri Ganesh Sompuraa
wrote this manuscript called ‘Vastu-Kaustubh' in the 17th century, which I still preserve.
Indian Traditional Temple Features
The layout plan of the Traditional Indian Temple is most important. The main areas of the layout
plan include:
 ‘Paravesh-Chowky'(Entrance Porch) is like a canopy that covers the entrance to the
temple.
 ‘Sabha-Mandap' (Assembly Hall) is the area for devotees to stand and worship. Assembly
Hall has a dome as its roof. Dome resembles the sky. It creates a large volume in the
assembly hall and the purpose of creating a large volume is to make the devotee feel
humble in front of God. The dome also creates echo in voice creating a divine
atmosphere. The Assembly Hall of temple may either be open (without walls) or closed
(with walls).The advantage of the closed Assembly Hall is to ensure the safety of
valuables in the temple.
 The most important part of the temple is the ‘Garbha-Gruh' (the sanctum) where the main
idol is placed.
 On top of the ‘Garbha-Gruh' of the temple is Shikhar (the Spire) or dome and a flag.

48
 Devotees enter temple through the Entrance Porch (Pravesh Chowky) which would have only
pillars and a roof. Due to lack of walls, this area has maximum light. Devotees then enter Sabha-
Mandap in which doors and windows are allowed for average amount of light. ‘Garbha-Gruh'
must not have any window or opening except its entrance door. This entrance must be right in
front of the main idol. The logic behind this is to illuminate idol from the light that comes
through entrance in order to keep devotee's attention on the idol while praying. This is for
devotees to concentrate only on the idol. Hence light is given a special focus in designing of a
temple.

For example, according to the guidelines, the sanctum of the temple where the idol of main deity
is placed must not have any window or opening except its entrance door. This entrance must be
right in front of the main idol. The logic behind this is to illuminate idol from the light that
comes through entrance in order to keep devotee's attention on the idol while praying.
Temple Designing

As a move towards to take temple architecture to a greater heights, Hitesh revolutionized the way
traditional temples were designed by using the modern computer technology. He made few of
the first computerised drawings, 3D models and walkthroughs of temples. He has developed
software that accomplishes necessary calculations in seconds that previously consumed hours.
Note on architecture

Ar. Hitesh, who venerates architecture, shares the relevance of architecture in building a
structure. He says, "Architecture is not just about what is built. But it is also about what is not
built, which is the hollow space that is enclosed by what is built. In other words, elements such
as floor, roof and walls are built to enclose or give form to the empty space. This empty space is
considered to be the protagonist or the soul of architecture. Architecture may be defined as
creating good quality spaces with the character that is suitable to its purpose, place and time."
To sum it up, the sound (whether natural or artificial) which has the musical qualities is called
music. The sound which lacks the musical qualities is not music but noise. Similarly, the space
(whether natural or artificial) which has the Architectural Qualities is Architecture and the space
that lacks the architectural qualities is not architecture but merely a building, he adds.
Need to make traditional Indian style of architecture popular.

In our country, during the British rule, the British government designed buildings in European
style. Mumbai's most of the important structures are built in European Architecture such as
Gothic, Neo-Gothic and Baroque styles. The trend continued several years even after British left
as it was easier and convenient to copy the European style. The drawings of European
architecture are easily available compared to the drawings of the Traditional Indian Architecture.
So it is easier to study, design and build the architectural style of Europe compared to the Indian
style.

In the beginning of the 20th century, an Architectural style named Indo-Saracenic style
originated in Mumbai. This style is a combination of the Indian and European architectural
styles.GPO building; Prince of Wales Museum and Gateway of India were built in this style in
Mumbai. British architect George Wittet combined many elements of Indian Architecture with
those of European architecture in the Gateway of India, like the Indian styled brackets, Samaran,

49
Lamcha, Mandovar(decoration on the external wall of the temple)are used with the European
styled arches and other European elements

.
.
Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli
Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli is a Vaishnav Temple (Haveli) dedicated to Lord Shrinathji. It
is located in Balasinor in Gujarat. It is built using RCC, but stone decoration of the traditional
Indian style makes it appear like a palace (Haveli). Therefore it is a combination of the
Traditional and Modern style and materials.
Shri Nija - Sevashram Trust Temple
Shri Nija-Sevashram Trust Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is located in Borivali (East) in
Mumbai. It is unique as it is an abstract form of the traditional Indian temple. It was a challenge
to generate the atmosphere of a traditional temple in the structure that is made of the modern
material which is RCC. But it was achieved by keeping its form, proportion and the quality of
spaces based on the traditional principles of Temple Architecture.
Shri Shantinathji Jain Temple
Shri Shantinathji Jain Temple is in the pure Traditional Style. The temple was fully designed on
computer in the year 2000. Its computerized 3D model is one of the first computerized 3D
models of an Indian temple in the world.
Shri Mukteshwar Temple

50
Shri Mukteshwar Temple in Mumbai is a seven storeyed temple. Every floor has different forms
of each God. Like the topmost floor has 12 Jyotirlings. The floor below that has different forms
of Shri Ganesha. The floor below that has different forms of Shri Ambaymata. Its basic structure
is designed by the well known Architect Nitin Killawala.
Ar. Hitesh has designed stone decoration that is to be clad on the exterior surface of this RCC
structure to make it look like a temple.
Dharma Kshetra
The purpose of the project, Dharma-Kshetra in US was to make single point of worship for NRIs
from different sects. Hence, this complex has 3 temples of three different zones of India. North
direction of Kshetra has Lord Shiva Temple which is in pink sandstone. South direction has Lord
Balaji temple in yellow sandstone. In the West direction, Shri Mahavirji's Jain temple is built in
white marble. Pradakshina Marg surrounds the three temples. On each of the four corners of the
"Pradakshina Marg", is a "Chhatri" as per Indian traditions.
Jyotirling Temple Complex
Jyotirling Temple Complex is made in the form of a tortoise. It has 12 Jyotirlings below 12
hikhars(spires) and Shri Sant Gyaneshwarji's "Sant- Darbars" below the 24 Samarans(domes.)
Shilp-Gram
Shilp-Gram links the architects living in the urban area with the craftsmen (Shilpis), who carve
stone and make sculptures and temples, living in the rural area. Since the project is in a village,
its architecture is in the rural style and it has monumental flair
Tile and Marble Setter Career
What knowledge is needed to be a Tile and Marble Setter?
Importance Knowledge

Building and Construction - Knowledge of materials, methods, and the

tools involved in the construction or repair of houses, buildings, or other
structures such as highways and roads.

English Language - Knowledge of the structure and content of the English

language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of
composition, and grammar.

Mathematics - Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus,

statistics, and their applications.

Design - Knowledge of design techniques, tools, and principles involved in

production of precision technical plans, blueprints, drawings, and models.

Customer and Personal Service - Knowledge of principles and processes

for providing customer and personal services. This includes customer
needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of
customer satisfaction.

Mechanical - Knowledge of machines and tools, including their designs,

uses, repair, and maintenance.

51
 Public Safety and Security - Knowledge of relevant equipment, policies,
procedures, and strategies to promote effective local, state, or national
security operations for the protection of people, data, property, and
institutions.

Transportation - Knowledge of principles and methods for moving people

or goods by air, rail, sea, or road, including the relative costs and benefits.

Administration and Management - Knowledge of business and

management principles involved in strategic planning, resource allocation,
human resources modeling, leadership technique, production methods, and
coordination of people and resources.
Work Styles
Importance Styles

Attention to Detail - Job requires being careful about detail and thorough
in completing work tasks.

Dependability - Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable,

and fulfilling obligations.

Integrity - Job requires being honest and ethical.

Independence - Job requires developing one's own ways of doing things,

guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to
get things done.

Cooperation - Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and
displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude.

Stress Tolerance - Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and
effectively with high stress situations.

Self Control - Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in

check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very
difficult situations.

Initiative - Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and

challenges.

Concern for Others - Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and
feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job.

Adaptability/Flexibility - Job requires being open to change (positive or

negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.

52
 Achievement/Effort - Job requires establishing and maintaining personally
challenging achievement goals and exerting effort toward mastering tasks.

Innovation - Job requires creativity and alternative thinking to develop new

ideas for and answers to work-related problems.

Leadership - Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer

opinions and direction.

Persistence - Job requires persistence in the face of obstacles.

Analytical Thinking - Job requires analyzing information and using logic

to address work-related issues and problems.

Social Orientation - Job requires preferring to work with others rather than
alone, and being personally connected with others on the job.

Marble Cladding is the application of one material over another to provide a skin or layer.
In construction, cladding is used to provide a degree of thermal insulation and weather
resistance, and to improve the appearance of buildings. Cladding can be made of any of a wide
range of materials including wood, metal, brick, vinyl, and composite materials that can include
aluminium, wood, blends of cement and recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice straw
fibres. Rainscreen cladding is a form of weather cladding designed to protect against the
elements, but also offers thermal insulation. The cladding does not itself need to be waterproof,
merely a control element: it may serve only to direct water or wind safely away in order to
control run-off and prevent its infiltration into the building structure. Cladding may also be
a control element for noise, either entering or escaping. Cladding can become a fire risk by
design or material.
Cladding in construction is material applied over another to provide a skin or layer and used to
provide a degree of thermal insulation and weather resistance, and to improve the appearance of
buildings. Between the cladding and the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down.
Materials
Cladding can be made of any of a wide range of materials including wood, metal, brick, vinyl,
and composite materials that can include aluminium, wood, blends of cement and
recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice straw fibres.[ Materials used for cladding affect vulnerability to
fire.
Purposes
Cladding may also be a control element for noise, either entering or escaping.
Between the cladding and the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down. In addition to the
chimney effect, the cladding material itself can contribute to a fire. Brick has excellent fire
resistance; planks or weatherboards made from fibre cement or steel have high fire

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 resistance; aluminium and reconstituted timber products have good fire resistance, and timber
weatherboards and plywood sheets have poor fire resistance. Composite cladding typically
consists of panels 3–5 millimetres (0.12–0.20 in) thick made of a core material sandwiched
between two aluminium faces. The core material may be polyethylene (which is combustible), a
mineral-based material, or a combination of both. Panels of the same appearance may have
different core materials; those with a higher proportion of mineral core withstand fire better, but
can still be considered combustible. Fire will be spread by the cladding if the core is combustible.

Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems

1. Products
2. Steel Construction Products
3. Façade Work Solutions
4. Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems

Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems

Stangle Cladding Fixation includes design, calculation and production of several types of
mechanical fixings and accessories used for cladding purposes. Stainless and galvanized steel are
among the various materials used in the fabrication.

 Technical Information
 Products
Standards
 ASTM C1354 / C1354M - 09
 DIN 18 516
 DIN 18 800
 DIN 18 801
Types Of Fixings
Principles for the Fixing of Building Cladding
The fixing systems for building cladding are composed of several elements (angles, expansion
bolts, screws, nuts, washers, etc), each of which shall present the appropriate mechanical features
in respect to the requirements posed by the specific project.
Any type of cladding, once fixed, is subject to two primary types of load:
 - Permanent load (the dead load), due to the weight of the cladding itself.
 - Variable load (applied loads), due to the wind, thermal expansions, seismic motions, etc.

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 Two fundamental types of fixing systems result:
 - Load-bearing fixing: to support the permanent load and the vertical components of the variable
loads.
 - Restraining fixing: to support the horizontal components of the loads. Restraining fixings
instead, serve to maintain the slabs in the positions specified by the project design. Thanks to the
systems of adjustment with which they are equipped, the absence of perfect verticality in the
external surfaces may be easily overcome.
Types of Façade Building Substructure
 1- Stone fixed to concrete wall
 2- Stone fixed to hollow block wall
 3- Stone fixed to solid block
 4- Stone fixed to composite substructure
Loads
 Self load = (Dead Load)
 Wind load
 Seismic load
 Temperature variation load
Façade Work Solutions
 Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems
 Concrete Anchoring Systems Accessories
 Metal Framing Accessories
Related Products
 C-Channel Strut Systems
 Concrete Anchoring Systems Accessories
 Two-Component, Cementitious Mortar for Waterproofing
 Bitumen Modified Moisture Curing Polyurethane Membranes
Natural Stone Tiles
 Page 1: Natural Stone Tile Introduction
 Page 2: Fixing of Travertine
 Page 3: Fixing of Marble
 Page 4: Further Information
 Back to Buying Guide
What is Travertine and Marble?

What is Travertine?
Travertine is a form of Limestone which is a naturally occurring Sedimentary Rock. Travertine is
slowly formed by deposits of Calcium Carbonate in bodies of water i.e. lakes or particularly in
hot springs. Travertine often contains organic matter such as leaves and tree debris which rots
away and leaves small voids behind.
What is Marble?
Marble is a naturally occurring Metamorphic rock. Marble is actually sedimentary rock, like
Limestone, which is forced down into the ground and put under intense heat and pressure. This
changes the structure of the rock over the thousands of years. This also changes the density so
marble has much fewer voids and often none at all.
What are the characteristics of Travertine?
Travertine is one of Tile Giants most popular natural stones. Key characteristics include:
 Available in a range of warm earthy colours, including; Cream, Ivory and Noce.

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  Has small voids in the stone which are formed by decaying organic matter, usually filled
on the front and not the back of the tile with a high grade epoxy resin.
 Available in 2 grades; Commercial and Premium.
 Like all stone, Travertine is naturally porous so requires sealing.
 Is a very affordable natural stone
 Is available in a range of finishes including; Tumbled, Honed, Chiselled and Polished
What are the characteristics of Marble?

Marble is seen as a very elegant stone, which has been used for statues and buildings across the
world since classical times. Characteristics of Marble include:
 Natural marble is white, any veins in it are caused by various mineral impurities which
gives the different colours.
 The crystals in marble allow light to penetrate several millimeters into the surface, giving
a depth to the stone.
 Although Marble is a much denser stone that Travertine, the surface is still naturally
porous and needs sealing to avoid staining
 Marble comes in several finishes, including; Honed and Filled, Tumbled, Polished and
Chiseled
Types of Stone Finishes
Both Travertine and Marble are available in a range of different finishes. Popular examples
include:
 Honed and Filled - The surface has been filled then sanded flat
 Tumbled - Has been tumbled in a machine which rounds off the edges for a rustic look
 Chiseled - Similar to tumbled, but gives the effect that the edges have been chiseled off
 Polished - The surface is mechanically polished to give it a flat and shiny surface

Click here to shop our range of Natural Stone Tiles

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Fixing of Marble

As with Travertine, any Marble tiles should be dry laid first by mixing up the tiles from different
boxes or crates until you are happy with the shading across the area to be tiled.
If the substrate shows any signs of dust or decay, it will need to be prepared with Primer G in
order to allow adhesive to stick to it.
How to Prepare Marble Tiles
Marble tiles should be cleaned before installation, using LTP Grimex to remove any dirt or
grime. This stops dirt and grime getting sealed on to the surface when the subsequent sealer is
applied.
First Seal
As with Travertine, a coat of impregnating sealer should be applied before fixing. This will help
stop adhesive and grout sticking to the pores in the surface while the tiles are being fitted.
Tumbled or unpolished Marble can be sealed with LTP Mattstone. Polished Marble should be
sealed with LTP MPG Sealer which will require buffing off after 20 - 30 minutes.
Adhesive
As before the adhesive to be used should be suitable for the conditions and also it is
recommended that White adhesive is used on light coloured marble. This is to avoid dark
shadowing from the back of the tile after installation. The adhesive you require will be dependant
on the conditions and substrate that the tile is being fixed on. In most cases you will
require Keraquick White.
Fixing of Marble Tiles
As with Travertine, Marble should be fixed on a solid bed of adhesive, so that no voids remain
behind the tiles after fixing. The adhesive should be spread on to the substrate and trowelled out
as a ribbed bed. Marble has fewer voids on the back of tile (if any), however care should be
taken to check for these and the tile should be ‘back buttered’.
Grouting
Grouting can be carried out in accordance with Mapeis’ instructions. Care should be taken with
Polished Marble that the grout is not allowed to dry on the surface. For polished marble we
recommend Keracolour FF Grout as it is fantastic for delicate surfaces.
Final Touches
Now that your tiles are fully grouted, we need to do a final clean and seal.
The tiles should be cleaned with LTP Grimex and sealed again with the sealer used during the
first seal (e.g. LTP MPG). This will provide the final seal for the stone.
Aftercare Maintenance

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Regular cleaning of Marble will help keep the tiles looking as good as the day they were
fitted. LTP Stonewash is an ideal everyday cleaner for marble.

CHAPTER 4
Building under construction: the Jain temple at Armakantak
The temple has been under construction since 2002,. Several more buildings are planned as part of
the complex, It could be another 20 years before the entire project is completed.

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 Huge piles of stone lying around. They are partly carved with representations of apsaras, dancers
and other figures. It looks like the principal form of each is roughed in at a workshop, so that the
final touches can be done once the figure has been placed on the building. On the tallest tower, which
stands separate from the main temple, the graceful finished carvings are surrounded by scaffolding,
But the scaffolding itself is beautiful to look at, constructed of wavy logs that remind you they came
from actual living trees, and bound by coarse rope.

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60
The main temple is enormous, and so is the crane that’s lifting pieces into place.

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Plenty of hand tools are being used to construct the Jain temple, just like the past.

Machine tools are also very much in play. It’s hard to see, but they’re using a circular
saw.The workmen cut and chisel stone, using both hand tools and machine-driven circular saws,
brings to mind the building of Europe’s old cathedrals, or other great monuments – the pyramids,
even. Except for the modern equipment and so the need for fewer laborers, the process is much the
same: slowly, painstakingly building an enormous structure that takes decades to complete, and that
is built for no practical purpose, but for ritual and the expression of a community’s values.

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A corner of the tower, with scaffolding.

The Jain temples are meticulously architected and ornately decorated the temple is. It’s an
interesting choice, considering how important austerity is in the Jain religion. The value of austerity
manifests in a number of ways – for example, extreme fasting, abandonment of clothing (not for
female ascetics, though), and generally renouncing all attachments by the workers who have to
follow all Jain principles of diet and living while working on the site.( Amarkantak,Madhya Pradesh,
India)https://rambulatory.com/2019/02/20/building-under-construction-jain-temple-at-armakantak/

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 The Architecture and Construction of a MODERN concrete Jain temple
Shri 1008 Shantinath Digambar Jain Mandir is located in Indapur, District Pune in Maharashtra. This
is the new south pattern temple. The main attraction of this temple is 27 feet tall granite idol of Shri
1008 Munisuvrata Bhagwan. The temple is golden in colour. So it is now called as Golden Temple.

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31 feet South Pattern Shikhar//21 Inch Shri 1008 Mahaveer Bhagwan created in metal/ 27 feet tall. Shri
1008 Munisuvratnath Bhagwan
Shikhar
It is built in South Indian pattern with 31 feet height. It is quadrangular shaped and painted in golden
yellow colour. It is made up of RCC by artists from Mahabalipuram. In the shikhar idol of Shree 1008
Mahaveer bhagwan made from Brass is placed. Shikhar is the model from shikhar of MelSitamur in
Tamil Nadu.
Vedi
It is the main part where Jain Idols are kept in a temple. Vedi is having upper arch like Parikar with
carvings of Jain gods on it and lower rectangular base called as Cutney. It is totally made up of
superwhitewhite marble. It is made by Tilak Marbles from Kishangarh in Rajasthan. It is carved with the
lions and elephants. There are also the Yaksha and Yakshini of Shri 1008 Shantinath Bhagwan on the
both sides of the vedi. There are Ashtamangal and Astapratiharya carved on cutney. The 16 Dreams of
Teerthankar's mother are also created on it. It indicates the birth events of the teerthankara. The carvings
are painted in various colors so that it has got a different look. Also there are 3 more vedi's present in the
temple :

 Manibhadra Kshetrapal Maharaj : He is known as Yaksha : The Protector.

 Padmavati Devi : She is called as Yakshini.
 Saraswati Devi : She is the god of Knowledge. She has a Jinvani, a Jain book in her hand. She is
situated on Lotus behind the Peacock.
Jain idols

 Shri 1008 Shantinath Bhagwan. It is made in superwhite Marble

 Shri 1008 Vasupujya Bhagwan. It ismade in Red stone.
 Shri 1008 Parshwanath Bhagwan. It is made superwhite Marble stone.
 Shri 1008 Mahaveer Bhagwan. It is made in Brass and Copper metal
 Shri 1008 Munisuvratnath Bhagwan. It is made in Granite Stone.
Manastambha

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It is present in front of the temple. It is 31 feet high made in Albetta marble from Makrana in
Rajasthan. It is the symbol of Humbleness in Jain philosophy. It kills the Ahankaar of the devotees as
soon as they see the Manastambha they become humble.

TO RECAPITULATE- Parts of a Hindu or Jain TEMPLE

1. Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,
Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

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4. Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
8. Vahana:It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

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