2021-ME-107 HMT-LAB LAB REPORTS

Table of Contents
1 INVESTIGATION OF FOURIER’S LAW&CONDUCTION ALONG SIMPLE BAR........2
1.1 OBJECTIVE........................................................................................................................2
1.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................2
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................2
1.3.1 Steady-State Method....................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Transient Method........................................................................................................2
1.4 THEORY..............................................................................................................................2
1.4.1 Modes of Heat Transfer...............................................................................................4
1.4.2 Experimental Setup.....................................................................................................4
1.5 METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................5
1.5.1 Apparatus.....................................................................................................................5
1.5.2 Procedure.....................................................................................................................6
1.6 Observations and Calculations...........................................................................................6
1.7 Results and Discussion.........................................................................................................7
1.8 Conclusion............................................................................................................................8
1.9 Safety Precautions...............................................................................................................8
2 INVESTIGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ALONG COMPOSITE BAR......................8
2.1 OBJECTIVE........................................................................................................................8
2.2 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................8
2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................9
2.3.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis................................................................................9
2.3.2 Analytical Evaluation of ‘h’–Assumptions for Laminar...................................11
2.4 THEORY............................................................................................................................12
2.5 METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................13
2.5.1 Apparatus...................................................................................................................13
2.5.2 Procedure....................................................................................................................14
2.6 Observations and Calculations.........................................................................................15
2.7 Results and Discussion.......................................................................................................16
2.8 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................16
2.9 Safety Precautions.............................................................................................................16

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1 INVESTIGATION OF FOURIER’S LAW&CONDUCTION

ALONG SIMPLE BAR

1.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate and verify Fourier’s Law for linear heat
conduction along a simple bar.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high
free electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat conductors.
Conduction can be easily understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold.
If we put these blocks in contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings,
thermal energy will be transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase
in temperature of the cold block. This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is
termed ‘conduction’.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

There are a number of methods to measure thermal conductivity. In general, there are two basic
techniques for measuring thermal conductivity: steady ‐state methods and transient or non ‐
steady‐state methods [1, 3]. Each of these methods is suitable for a limited range of materials,
and they are based on the fundamental laws of heat conduction and electrical analogy. Steady‐
state methods have been traditionally used since they are mathematically simpler. There is an
important distinction between steady‐state and transient techniques [4, 5]. Transient heat
transfer methods are capable of directly determining thermal diffusivity, whereas steady ‐state
methods are considered to be more accurate than transient methods for testing dry materials [6].

1.3.1 Steady-State Method

The steady‐state technique records a measurement when a tested material's thermal state
reaches complete equilibrium [3]. A steady‐state condition is attained when the temperature at
each point of the specimen is constant and the temperature does not change with time. A
disadvantage, however, is that it generally takes a long time to reach the required equilibrium
[2, 3]. The method involves expensive method apparatus since a well ‐designed experimental
installation system is usually needed. Nevertheless, it is the primary and most accurate
measurement method.

1.3.2 Transient Method

The non‐steady‐state or transient technique records a measurement during the heating
process. The method determines thermal conductivity properties by means of transient
sensors. These measurements can be made relatively quickly, which garners an advantage
over steady‐state techniques [1,2]. For this reason, numerous solutions have been derived for
the transient heat conduction equation by using one ‐, two ‐, three ‐dimensional geometries [2].
Transient methods generally employ needle probes or wires [3].

1.4 THEORY
In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the
one in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar

We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one
end, and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar
is insulated in the peripheral direction, that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an
imposed temperature differential along the bar.

The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in the axial direction

it is written as (1)

where qx is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and dT/dx is the

temperature gradient in the x-direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in
the direction of decreasing temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship
which includes all directions of heat transfer:

(2)

The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of
temperature, but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature ranges. Because of the
enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical
conductivity and as a result, metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good
conductors of heat.

In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal conductivity k for
brass and comparing this value to the actual value from one or more references. To do so we
will calculate the cross-sectional area Ax of the bar and the slope dT/dx from a plot of
measured temperatures vs. length. We can then use these values in a rearranged version of
Fourier's Law to find the thermal conductivity, k:

(3)

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1.4.1 Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer, detail of each as follows;
a. Conduction: In conduction heat is transferred due to vibration of molecules. For
example, in solids, metals heat is transferred as a result of conduction.
b. Convection: In convection heat is transferred due to movement of molecules. For
example, in liquids, gases heat is transferred as a result of convection.
c. Radiation: It takes place due to change of energy state of electron.

1.4.2 Experimental Setup

The apparatus we will be using in this experiment is the P.A. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction
Unit, which consists of three items. The first item is a transformer equipped with a circuit
breaker. The transformer has two cords which connect it to an AC outlet and to the second
item, the calibration unit (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Front view of Calibration unit and Transformer

The calibration unit has two basic functions. It delivers power to the heater element within the
test unit and it calibrates and displays the temperatures at nine locations along the test unit.
The amount of power delivered to the test unit is controlled by the power control knob on the
right side of the calibration unit; to its left is the temperature selector knob which is used to
select one of the nine thermocouple temperatures for display on the digital readout, as shown
in Figures 3 and 4.

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Figure 3: Rear view of Calibration unit

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Figure 4: Front view of Test unit

The third item is the test unit, which consists of two test geometries: an insulated brass bar which
allows a sample to be placed between the two ends, and an insulated disk. Both geometries are
equipped with a power supply, but we will only use the insulated bar for this experiment. The test unit
is also equipped with a cooling water hose. The purpose of the cooling water running through the unit
at the cold end of the bar is to remove heat that is produced at the hot end and transferred by
conduction to the cold end, keeping the cold end at a constant temperature. Once the rate at which
heat is generated is equal to the rate at which heat is removed, steady state conditions (temperatures
will be fairly constant and readings can be taken) will exist. The test unit has two heater cords: one
from the test bar and the other from the test disk. Be sure to use only the heater cord for the bar, which
connects to the heater plug located in the lower right-hand corner of the calibration unit.

1.5 METHODOLOGY
1.5.1 Apparatus
For the conduction experiments, we were using the ‘’P.A. Hilton’’ Heat Conduction Study
Bench (Model: HE940)

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2 7

3 8

4
9

Figure 5: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bunch (Model; HE940)

1. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

2. Heater Power Indicator 7. Thermocouples
3. Heater Power Regulator 8. Radial Module
4. Temperature Indicator 9. Linear Module
5. Temperature Selector

1.5.2 Procedure
i. Connect the equipment as shown in Figures 3 and 4, making sure that the
calibration unit is switched off before connecting the transformer to the AC outlet.
ii. Apply a very small amount (a drop) of thermal conducting paste to make a thin
layer on each side of the test unit surface and spread it uniformly.
iii. Insert the brass sample (30 mm length and 25 mm diameter) into the unit and allow
cooling water to flow through the test unit.
iv. Connect all thermocouples in the appropriate order.
v. Switch the calibration unit on and adjust the power control knob to deliver 10 W of
power to the test unit; allow the system to reach steady state (approximately 20
minutes).
vi. Record the temperatures at each thermocouple and the power input.
1.6 Observations and Calculations
Specimen’s Material = Brass
Specimen’s Diameter = 25mm
Cross Sectional Area = 4.91 *10-4 m2
Length = 0.09 m

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Table 1: Calculations for thermal conductivity of Brass

Sr.no Q (W) T1 (C) T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 K(exp) K(brass) Error

(%)

1 5 40 40 39 33 33 33 130 150 13.3

2 10 52 51 50 34 34 34 108.43 150 27.7

3 15 60 58 54 35 34 34 105 150 30
4 20 76 72 66 35 35 34 85.71 150 42.8
X (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.09

1.7 Results and Discussion

Figure 6: Graph between Temperature and Distance from heater end

The data displayed on the pages above show the linear temperature distribution along the
cylindrical insulated bar. We can see from all graph of different heater power that are the
temperature will decrease when the distance from heater end is increase. This shown that the
result is following the theoretical and the Fourier’s Law is satisfied. We assumed that the bar
length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end, and a cold temperature T c is
imposed on the other. We also assumed, because the bar is insulated in the peripheral direction
that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed temperature differential along the

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bar. We have faced some error which sources of error within the equipment failure that are
heater power supply was not steady to the setup power and the thermocouple were not place
accurately.

1.8 Conclusion
As the conclusion that is taken from our result and analysis, we can say that the linear
conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar can be investigated by Fourier’s law. From that
result also we can identify the slope (dT/dx) of the graph of temperature profile along the entire
length of the bar, the thermal conductivity and the heat transfer coefficient of the brass.

1.9 Safety Precautions

 To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the
 sample or test unit.
 Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from
the test unit.
 Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow
the temperature to go above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.
 Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.

References

[1] D. Lampard and N.Hay: "The Use of a Mass Transfer Technique to Infer
Heat Transfer Coefficients on Film Cooled Turbine
Components" Measurement Science and Technology 11 pp.933-941, 2000

[2] Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman,

Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank P. Incropera, and David P. DeWitt

[3] Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics, and Thermodynamics

by Jacques P. H. Rivière and Robert P. Taylor

[4] ASTM E1952-17: Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity

and Thermal Diffusivity by Modulated Temperature Differential Scanning
Calorimetry

2 INVESTIGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ALONG

COMPOSITE BAR

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2.1 OBJECTIVE

To study the conduction of

heat along a composite bar and
evaluate the overall
heat transfer coefficient.
To study the heat conduction along a composite bar and determine the overall heat transfer
coefficient.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In this experiment, linear

conduction heat transfer
method is studied for a
stainless-steel
bar in between the brass at
source and sink. The entire
system (insulated heater,
specimen,
air and laboratory enclosure)
are at room temperature

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initially. The heater

generates
uniform heat flow as switched
on. This experiment deals with
the systematic way to find
the thermal conductivity of the
stainless-steel specimen.
In this experiment, linear conduction heat transfer method is studied for a stainless-steel bar
in between the brass at source and sink. The entire system (insulated heater, specimen air and
laboratory enclosure) is at room temperature initially. The heater generates uniform heat flow
as switched on. This experiment deals with the systematic way to find the thermal
conductivity of the stainless- steel specimen.

For conduction, an electrical

heating element, which
comprises of a heat input
section
fabricated from brass fitted
with an electrical heater (heat
source), is bonded to one end
of
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a stainless-steel rod. Other end

of the rod, which is made of
satin less steel, is exposed to
heat discharge (heat sink).
For practical situation, heat
conduction occurs in three
dimensions, a complexity
which often requires
extensive computation to
analyze. For
experiment, a single
dimensional approach is
required to demonstrate the
basic law that
relates rate of heat flow to
temperature gradient and area.
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For this purpose, the outer

surface
of the cylindrical rod is
well insulated; thus, yielding
one-dimensional linear heat
conduction in the rod once the
heating element is switched
on. We will use heat sensor
values of temperature at
different point of the apparatus
to find out conductivity (k).
For conduction, an electrical
heating element, which
comprises of a heat input
section

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fabricated from brass fitted

with an electrical heater (heat
source), is bonded to one end
of
a stainless-steel rod. Other end
of the rod, which is made of
satin less steel, is exposed to
heat discharge (heat sink).
For practical situation, heat
conduction occurs in three
dimensions, a complexity
which often requires
extensive computation to
analyze. For
experiment, a single
dimensional approach is
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required to demonstrate the

basic law that
relates rate of heat flow to
temperature gradient and area.
For this purpose, the outer
surface
of the cylindrical rod is
well insulated; thus, yielding
one-dimensional linear heat
conduction in the rod once the
heating element is switched
on. We will use heat sensor
values of temperature at
different point of the apparatus
to find out conductivity (k).
For conduction, an electrical heating element, which comprises of a heat input section
fabricated from brass fitted with an electrical heater (heat source), is bonded to one end of a
stainless-steel rod. Other end of the rod, which is made of satin less steel, is exposed to heat
discharge (heat sink). For practical situation, heat conduction occurs in three
dimensions, a complexity which often requires extensive computation to analyze. For

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experiment, a single dimensional approach is required to demonstrate the basic law that
relates rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and area. For this purpose, the outer surface
of the cylindrical rod is well insulated; thus, yielding one-dimensional linear heat
conduction in the rod once the heating element is switched on. We will use heat sensor
values of temperature at different point of the apparatus to find out conductivity (k).

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

The convective heat transfer coefficient in forced flow can be evaluated by:
(a) Dimensional Analysis combined with experiments;

(b) Reynolds Analogy –an analogy between heat and momentum transfer.

(c) Analytical Methods –exact and approximate analyses of boundary layer equations.
2.3.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis does not yield equations which can be solved. It simply combines the
pertinent variables into non-dimensional numbers which facilitate the interpretation and
extend the range of application of experimental data. The relevant variables for forced
convection heat transfer phenomenon whether laminar or turbulent, are
i. the properties of the fluid –density p, specific heat capacity Cp, dynamic or absolute
viscosity , thermal conductivity k.
ii. the properties of flow –flow velocity Y, and the characteristic dimension of the
system L. As such, the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is written as h = f ( V,
L, Cp,k) = 0

Since there are seven variables and four primary dimensions, we would expect three
dimensionless numbers. As before, we choose four independent or core variables as r,V, L, k,
and calculate the dimensionless numbers by applying Buckingham p’s method:

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Equating the powers of M, L, T and on both sides, we get

M : a + d +1 = 0

L : - 3a + b + c + d = 1 = 0

T : - b –3d –1 = 0

q: - d = 0.

By solving them, d = 0, b = - 1, a = - 1, c = - 1

(Reynolds number is a flow parameter of greatest significance. It is the ratio of inertia forces to
viscous forces and is of prime importance to ascertain the conditions under which a flow is laminar or
turbulent. It also compares one flow with another provided the corresponding length and velocities are
comparable in two flows. There would be a similarity in flow between two flows when the Reynolds
numbers are equal and the geometrical similarities are taken into consideration.)

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Therefore, the functional relationship is expressed as:

Nu = f (Re, Pr); or Nu = C Rem Prn

where the values of c, m and n are determined experimentally.

2.3.2 Analytical Evaluation of ‘h’–Assumptions for Laminar
As pointed out earlier, when the motion of the fluid is caused by the imposition of external
forces, such as pressure differences, and the fluid flows over a solid surface, at a temperature
different from the temperature of the fluid, the mechanism of heat transfer is called ‘forced
convection’. Therefore, any analytical coefficient would require the temperature distribution
in the flow field surrounding the body.

That is, the theoretical analysis would require the use of the equation of motion of the viscous
fluid flowing over the body along with the application of the principles of conservation of
mass and energy in order to relate the heat energy that is convected away by the fluid from
the solid surface.

For the sake of simplicity, we will consider the motion of the fluid in 2 space dimension, and
a steady flow. Further, the fluid properties like viscosity, density, specific heat, etc are
constant in the flow field, the viscous shear forces m the Y –direction is negligible and there
are no variations in pressure also in the Y –direction.

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2.4 THEORY
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high
free electron mobility, which explains why they are good conductors. Conduction can be
easily understood if we imagine two blocks, one hot and the other cold. If we put these blocks
in contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be
transferred from the hot block to the cold block.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium generally depends upon the geometry of the
medium, its thickness and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference
across the medium. The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is directly proportional
to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Rate of heat conduction ∝(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)/ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
In the experiment performed, the assuming the length of the bar to be L, a uniform hot
temperature This imposed on one end, and on the other end, Tc is the temperature caused by
the cooling water. We have:

Figure 7: Schematic of long cylindrical insulated bar

Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to form a
composite structure like the composite wall in Figure 1. Let's also assume that the cross-sectional area
normal to the flow of heat transfer is constant and that heat flows in a one-dimensional direction.
Taking only one of the, slabs for now, we learned from Experiment 1 that the heat transfer is
governed by Fourier's Law, given by
dT kA
q x =−kA = ( T −T s .2 ) (1)
dx L s ,1

We already have an idea of the concept of thermal resistance for conduction. Resistance in general is
defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate. As transfer rate goes to zero, the
resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the driving potential goes to zero, resistance fails to
exist. By using Fourier's Law and the definition of resistance, we can derive the thermal resistance for
all the modes of heat transfer:
T s , 1−T s .2 L
Rt ,cond = = (2)
qx kA

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T s−T fld 1
Rt ,conv = = (3)
q hA
T s−T surr 1
Rrad = = (4)
qrad hr A
where R is the resistance for each mode. Symbols Ts, T fld, and Tsur are the temperatures for the
surface, fluid, and surroundings respectively. The symbols hr and h are the heat transfer coefficients
for radiation and convection respectively. Now what happens if we combine all the slabs? If
we sum up all the individual heat transfers, the intermediate temperatures cancel and we get
T s ,1−T s , n T s ,1−T s , 2
q x= =
∑ Rt
( )( )( )
L1
k1 A
L
+ 2 +
k2 A
Ln
kn A
(5)

To simplify Equation 5, let's

combine everything that
does not change across the
composite, like the initial and
final temperature and the area
A, and call the rest that does
change from material to
material the overall heat
transfer coefficient U. Now we
have
To simplify Equation 5, let's combine everything that does not change across the composite,
like the initial and final temperature and the area A, and call the rest that does change from material to
material the overall heat transfer coefficient U. Now we have
q x =UA ∆T (6)

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and the overall heat transfer coefficient is:

1 1
U= =

( )( )( )
Rtot A L1 L L (7)
+ 2 + n
k1 k2 kn

We have two ways to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by finding k tot. The first way is by
summing up all the individual k's by methods from Experiment 1 and using these values in Equation
7. The second way is to evaluate ktot by the overall slope of the plot from the extreme temperatures.

Figure 8: Composite Wall (Heat Transfer)

2.5 METHODOLOGY
2.5.1 Apparatus
For the conduction experiments, we were using the ‘’P.A. Hilton’’ Heat Conduction Study
Bench (Model: HE940)

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2 7

3 8

4
9

Figure 9: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bunch (Model; HE940)

6. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

7. Heater Power Indicator 7. Thermocouples
8. Heater Power Regulator 8. Radial Module
9. Temperature Indicator 9. Linear Module
10. Temperature Selector

2.5.2 Procedure
 We ensured that the main switch was in the off position (the digital displays should not be
illuminated). Then we ensured that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear panel
was in the ON position.
 We turned the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum. So,
we ensured the Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A had been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit H112.Then the cold-water supply and electrical supply was turned
on at the source. We opened the water tap until the flow through the drain hose was
approximately 1.5 litres/minute. The actual flow could be checked using a
measuring vessel and stopwatch if required but this was not a critical parameter. The
flow had to dissipate up to 65W only.
 We then released the toggle clamp tensioning screw and clamps. We ensured that the
faces of the exposed ends of the heated and cooled sections are clean. Similarly, we
checked the faces of the intermediate specimen to be placed between the faces of the
heated and cooled sections.
 We ensured the intermittent section, a 25 mm diameter and 30 mm long brass
cylinder, to be used is in the correct orientation then clamped the assembly together using
the toggle clamps and tensioning screw.
 We turned on the main switch and the digital display was illuminated. We set the
temperature selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the bar.
Then we rotated the voltage controller to increase the voltage to achieve a power of 5W.
 We observed the temperature T1 which began to increase.
 We allowed the system to reach stability and took readings and made adjustments as
instructed in the individual procedures for each experiment.

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 When the experimental procedure was completed, it was good practice to turn off the
power to the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to
cool before turning off the cooling water supply.
 This process was repeated using 10W and 15W power supply.
 The readings of the power input and the temperature were tabulated.

2.6 Observations and Calculations

Specimen’s Materials = Brass, Stainless Steel

Distance between consecutive sensors = 10mm

Diameter of Specimen = 25mm

Length = 30mm
Table 2: Calculations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 K1 K2 K3 Ueq Rt Uexp %age

( (C0 (C (C (C (C (C (C (W/ (W/ (W/ W/ h W/ error
0 0 0 0 0 0
W ) ) ) ) ) ) ) mk) mk) mk) m2k Ω m2k
)
5 39 38 38 36 35 35 33 204.0 102.0 102.0 1700 1.5 1360. 19.9
8 4 4 53
10 47 46 43 40 36 35 33 102.0 81.63 204.0 1457. 1.6 1236. 15.1
4 8 7 5 83
15 62 60 57 46 40 38 34 122.4 76.53 153.0 1133. 1.6 1200. -5.8
8 6 7 9 56
20 76 72 66 57 54 49 35 81.63 102.0 58.3 995.5 2.3 850.2 14.5
4 7
X 0.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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2.7 Results and Discussion

From the graphs, we can see that varying th input power will affect the heat transfer coefficient.
When the input power, Q (watt) increases, the overall heat transfer coefficient, K (W/mC) will
decrease. There will be difference between U calculated from the experiment and U calculated
theoretically because of the difference in variables (input power, area, temperature, distance
and thermal conductivity) used.

2.8 Conclusion
This experiment shows that the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is less than the thermal
conductivity of brass as there is a steep gradient from T3 to T6 in the graph which shows the
poor thermal conduction of stainless steel than brass.

2.9 Safety Precautions

 To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the
 sample or test unit.
 Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from
the test unit.
 Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow
the temperature to go above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.

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 Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.

References
[1] “Heat Transfer”. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 31 May 2011.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer#Conduction >

[2] Yunus A. Cengel. “Heat Transfer A Practical Approach”, WBC

McGraw-Hill (1998)

[3] “Linear Heat Conduction”. Retrieved on 31 May 2011

<http://me.yeditepe.edu.tr/courses/me401/me401_linear_conduction.pdf >

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