PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet

1.0 Statistics Mode

Place data in ascending order.

Mean Mode = most frequently occurring value (1.4)
∑ xi ∑ xi
μ= (1.1a) x� = (1.1b) If two values occur with maximum frequency the data
N n
µ = population mean set is bimodal.
x� = sample mean If three or more values occur with maximum
Σxi = sum of all data values (x1, x2, x3, …) frequency the data set is multi-modal.
N = size of population
n = size of sample Standard Deviation
∑(xi - μ)2
Median
σ=� (Population) (1.5a)
N

Place data in ascending order. ∑(xi - �x)2

If N is odd, median = central value (1.2) s=� (Sample) (1.5b)
n ‒1
If N is even, median = mean of two central values
σ = population standard deviation
N = size of population s = sample standard deviation
xi = individual data value ( x1, x2, x3, …)
Range (1.5) 𝜇𝜇 = population mean
Range = xmax - xmin (1.3)
x� = sample mean
N = size of population
xmax = maximum data value n = size of sample
xmin = minimum data value

2.0 Probability Independent Events

P (A and B and C) = PAPBPC (2.3)
Frequency
P (A and B and C) = probability of independent
nx events A and B and C occurring in sequence
fx = (2.1)
n PA = probability of event A

fx = relative frequency of outcome x

nx = number of events with outcome x Mutually Exclusive Events
n = total number of events
P (A or B) = PA + PB (2.4)

P (A or B) = probability of either mutually exclusive

Binomial Probability
event A or B occurring in a trial
(order doesn’t matter)
PA = probability of event A
n!(pk )(qn-k )
Pk = k!(n-k)!
(2.2)
Conditional Probability
Pk = binomial probability of k successes in n trials
𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴)∙𝑃𝑃(𝐷𝐷|𝐴𝐴)
p = probability of a success 𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴|𝐷𝐷) = 𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴)∙𝑃𝑃�𝐷𝐷 �𝐴𝐴�+𝑃𝑃(~𝐴𝐴)∙𝑃𝑃(𝐷𝐷|~𝐴𝐴) (2.5)
q = 1 – p = probability of failure
k = number of successes
n = number of trials P (A|D) = probability of event A given event D
P(A) = probability of event A occurring
P(~A) = probability of event A not occurring
P(D|~A) = probability of event D given event A did not occur

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PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
1
 3.0 Plane Geometry Ellipse Rectangle
2b
Circle Perimeter = 2a + 2b (3.9)
Area = π a b (3.8) 2a Area = ab (3.10)
Circumference =2 π r (3.1)
Area = π r2 (3.2)
Triangle (3.6) B
c
Parallelogram Area = ½ bh (3.11) a h
h a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc·cos∠A (3.12)
Area = bh (3.3) A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac·cos∠B (3.13) C b
b c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab·cos∠C (3.14)

Right Triangle Regular Polygons

s(12 f) ns2
Area = n 2
= 180 (3.15)
c2 = a2 + b2 (3.4) 4tan �
n
�
a c
sin θ = (3.5) a n = number of sides
c

cos θ =
b
(3.6) θ
c Trapezoid
a
b a
tan θ = b
(3.7)
Area = ½(a + b)h (3.16)
h

b
4.0 Solid Geometry

Cube Sphere

Volume = s3 (4.1) s 4
Volume = π r3 (4.8)
3

Surface Area = 6s2 (4.2) s s Surface Area = 4 π r2 (4.9)

Rectangular Prism Cylinder

r
Volume = wdh (4.3) h
Volume = π r2 h (4.10) h
Surface Area = 2(wd + wh + dh) (4.4) w d
Surface Area = 2 π r h+2 π r2 (4.11)

Right Circular Cone

h Irregular Prism
πr2 h
Volume = (4.5)
3
Total Surface Area = π r2 + π r �r2 +h2 r Volume = Ah (4.12) h
(4.6)
A = area of base
Pyramid

Ah h 5.0 Constants
Volume = (4.7)
3
A = area of base g = - 9.8 m/s2 = - 32.17 ft/s2
G = 6.67 x 10-11 m3/kg·s2
π = 3.14159
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
2
 6.0 Conversions
Mass/Weight (6.1) Area (6.4) Pressure (6.8) Rotational Speed (6.11)
1 atm = 1.01325 bar 1 Hz = 60 rpm
1 kg = 2.205 lbm 1 acre = 4047 m2
= 33.9 ft H2O = 2π rad/sec
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 43,560 ft2
= 29.92 in. Hg
1 ton = 2000 lb = 0.00156 mi2
= 760 mm Hg
1 lb = 16 oz
Volume (6.5) = 101,325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
1L = 0.264 gal
Length (6.2) 1psi = 2.31 ft of H2O
= 0.0353 ft3
1m = 3.28 ft = 33.8 fl oz Power (6.9) 7.0 Defined Units
1 km = 0.621 mi 1mL = 1 cm3 = 1 cc
1W = 3.412 Btu/h
1 in. = 2.54 cm
Temperature Unit = 0.00134 hp 1J = 1 N·m
1 mi = 5280 ft
Equivalents (6.6) = 14.34 cal/min 1N = 1 kg·m / s2
1 yd = 3 ft *Use equation in section
9.0 to convert = 0.7376 ft·lbf/s 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1 hp = 550 ft∙lb/sec 1V =1W/A
Δ1 K = Δ 1 ºC 1W =1J/s
Time (6.3) = Δ 1.8 ºF Energy (6.10) 1W = 1 V·A
1d = 24 h = Δ 1.8 ºR
1J = 0.239 cal 1 Hz = 1 s-1
1h = 60 min Force (6.7) 1F = 1 A·s / V
= 9.48 x 10-4 Btu
1 min = 60 s 1H = 1 V·s / A
1N = 0.225 lb = 0.7376 ft·lbf
1 yr = 365 d
1 kip = 1,000 lb 1kW h = 3,600,000 J

8.0 SI Prefixes
Numbers Less Than One Numbers Greater Than One
Power Decimal Power Whole Number
Prefix Abbreviation Prefix Abbreviation
of 10 Equivalent of 10 Equivalent
10-1 0.1 deci- d 101 10 deca- da
10-2 0.01 centi- c 102 100 hecto- h
10-3 0.001 milli- m 103 1000 kilo- k
10-6 0.000001 micro- µ 106 1,000,000 Mega- M
10-9 0.000000001 nano- n 109 1,000,000,000 Giga- G
10-12 pico- p 1012 Tera- T
10-15 femto- f 1015 Peta- P
10-18 atto- a 1018 Exa- E
10-21 zepto- z 1021 Zetta- Z
10-24 yocto- y 1024 Yotta- Y

9.0 Equations Temperature Force and Moment

F = ma (9.7a) M = Fd⊥ (9.7b)
Mass and Weight TK = TC + 273 (9.4)
F = force
m = VDm (9.1) m = mass
TR = TF + 460 (9.5)
W = mg (9.2) a = acceleration
TF = 9
Tc + 32 (9.6a) M = moment
W = VDw (9.3) 5

TF - 32
d⊥= perpendicular distance
V = volume TC = (9.6b)
1.8 Equations of Static Equilibrium
Dm = mass density
m = mass TK = temperature in Kelvin
Dw = weight density ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMP = 0 (9.8)
TC = temperature in Celsius
W = weight Fx = force in the x-direction
g = acceleration due to gravity TR = temperature in Rankin
TF = temperature in Fahrenheit Fy = force in the y-direction
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc. MP = moment about point P
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
3
 9.0 (Continued) Equations Electricity
Ohm’s Law
Energy: Work Fluid Mechanics
V = IR (9.32)
W = F∥ ∙ d (9.9)
p=
F
(9.16)
A P = IV (9.33)
W = work V1 V2
F∥ = force parallel to direction of =T (Charles’ Law) (9.17) RT (series) = R1 + R2+ ··· + Rn (9.34)
T1 2
displacement p1 p 1
d = displacement = T2 (Gay-Lussanc’s Law) (9.18) RT (parallel) = 1 1 1 (9.35)
T1 2
+ + ∙∙∙ +
R1 R2 Rn

p1V1 = p2V2 (Boyle’s Law) (9.19) Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Power
Q = Av (9.20) IT = I1 + I2 + ··· + In
E W
P= = (9.10) n
t t A1v1 = A2v2 (9.21) or IT = ∑k=1 Ik (9.36)

P=τω (9.11)
P = Qp (9.22) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

P = power absolute pressure = gauge pressure VT = V1 + V2 + ··· + Vn

E = energy + atmospheric pressure (9.23) n
or VT = ∑k=1 Vk (9.37)
W = work p = absolute pressure
t = time V = voltage
F = force
τ = torque A = area VT = total voltage
ω = angular velocity V = volume I = current
T = absolute temperature IT = total current
Q = flow rate R = resistance
Efficiency v = flow velocity RT = total resistance
P = power P = power
Pout
Efficiency (%) = ∙100% (9.12)
Pin
Mechanics Thermodynamics
Pout = useful power output d P = Q′ = AU∆T (9.38)
Pin = total power input s̅ = t
(9.24)
∆Q
∆d P = Q' = (9.39)
v� = (9.25) ∆t
∆t 1 k
Energy: Potential vf − vi U= =L (9.40)
a= (9.26) R
U = mgh (9.13) t
kA∆T
vi 2 sin(2θ) P= L
(9.41)
U = potential energy X= (9.27)
-g A1v1 = A2v2 (9.42)
m =mass
g = acceleration due to gravity v = vi + at (9.28)
h = height Pnet = σAe(T4 -TC 4 ) (9.43)
d = di + vit + ½at2 PL
(9.29) k= A∆T
(9.44)

Energy: Kinetic v2 = vi2 + 2a(d – di) (9.30)

K = 12 mv2
K = kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity
Energy: Thermal
∆Q = mc∆T
∆Q = change in thermal energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
∆T = change in temperature
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
P = rate of heat transfer
τ = dFsinθ (9.31) Q = thermal energy
(9.14)
A = area of thermal conductivity
s� = average speed U = coefficient of heat conductivity
v� = average velocity (U-factor)
v = velocity ∆T = change in temperature
vi = initial velocity (t =0) ∆t = change in time
a = acceleration R = resistance to heat flow ( R-value)
X = range k = thermal conductivity
t = time v = velocity
(9.15) ∆d = change in displacement Pnet = net power radiated
d = distance W
di = initial distance (t=0) σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 m2 ∙K4
g = acceleration due to gravity e = emissivity constant
θ = angle L = thickness
τ = torque T = temperature of radiator
F = force TC = temperature of surroundings
4
 10.0 Section Properties
y y
Moment of Inertia Rectangle Centroid

h b h
bh3
x x� = and y� = (10.3) x
2 2
Ixx = (10.1)
12 Right Triangle Centroid
b y

b h
x� = and y� = (10.4)
Ixx = moment of inertia of a rectangular section 3 3
x
about x axis
y
Semi-circle Centroid
Complex Shapes Centroid
4r
∑ xi A i ∑ yi A i x� = r and y� = 3π
(10.5)
x� = ∑ Ai
and y� = ∑ Ai
(10.2) x

x�= x-distance to the centroid x�= x-distance to the centroid

y� = y-distance to the centroid y� = y-distance to the centroid
xi = x distance to centroid of shape i
yi = y distance to centroid of shape i
Ai = Area of shape i
12.0 Structural Analysis
11.0 Material Beam Formulas
P
Reaction RA = RB = (12.1)
2
PL
Stress (axial) Moment Mmax = (at point of load) (12.2)
4
F PL3
σ= (11.1) Deflection Δmax = 48EI
(at point of load) (12.3)
A
ωL
σ = stress Reaction RA = RB = (12.4)
2
F = axial force ωL2
A = cross-sectional area Moment Mmax = (at center) (12.5)
8
5ωL4
Deflection Δmax = 384EI
(at center) (12.6)
Strain (axial)
Reaction RA = RB = P (12.7)

ε= δ
L0
(11.2) Moment Mmax = Pa (12.8)

ε = strain Deflection Δmax = 24EI

Pa
�3L2 -4a2 � (12.9)
L0 = original length (at center)
δ = change in length Reaction RA =
Pb
and RB =
Pa
(12.10)
L L
Pab
Moment Mmax = (at Point of Load) (12.11)
L
Modulus of Elasticity Deflection Δmax = Pab(a+2b)�3a(a+2b) (12.12)
27EIL
σ
E= ε
(11.3) (at x = �
a(a+2b)
3,
when a>b )
E = modulus of elasticity
(F2 -F1 )L0 I = moment of inertia
E= (11.4)
(𝛿𝛿2 −𝛿𝛿1 )A
Deformation: Axial Truss Analysis
E = modulus of elasticity FL0 2J = M + R (12.14)
δ= (12.13)
σ = stress AE
ε = strain J = number of joints
A = cross-sectional area δ = deformation M =number of members
F = axial force F = axial force R = number of reaction forces
δ = deformation L0 = original length
A = cross-sectional area
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc. E = modulus of elasticity
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
5
 13.0 Simple Machines
Inclined Plane

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

DE FR L
IMA= (13.1) AMA= (13.2) IMA= (13.6)
DR FE H
AMA
% Efficiency= � � 100 (13.3)
IMA

IMA = ideal mechanical advantage Wedge

AMA = actual mechanical advantage
DE = effort distance DR = resistance distance
FE = effort force FR = resistance force
L
IMA= (13.7)
H

Lever

1st Screw
Class
C
IMA = (13.8)
Pitch

1
2nd Pitch = (13.9)
Class TPI
C = circumference
r = radius
Pitch = distance between
threads
3rd TPI = threads per inch
Class

Compound Machines

MATOTAL = (MA1) (MA2) (MA3) . . . (13.10)

Wheel and Axle

Gears; Sprockets with Chains; and Pulleys with

Belts Ratios
Effort at Axle
Nout dout ωin τout
GR = = = = (13.11)
Nin din ωout τin
dout ωin τout
= = (pulleys) (13.12)
din ωout τin

Effort at Wheel Compound Gears

B D
GRTOTAL = �A� �C� (13.13)

Pulley Systems
IMA = total number of strands of a single string
supporting the resistance
DE (string pulled)
IMA =
DR (resistance lifted)
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
GR = gear ratio
ωin = angular velocity - driver
(13.4) ωout = angular velocity - driven
Nin = number of teeth - driver
Nout = number of teeth - driven
(13.5) din = diameter - driver
dout = diameter - driven
𝜏𝜏in = torque - driver
𝜏𝜏out = torque - driven
6
 14.0 Structural Design

Steel Beam Design: Shear Steel Beam Design: Moment Spread Footing Design
Vn Mn qnet = qallowable - pfooting (14.5)
Va ≤ (14.1) Ma ≤ (14.3)
Ωv Ωb pfooting = tfooting ∙150 lb
(14.6)
ft3
Vn = 0.6FyAw (14.2) Mn = FyZx (14.4)
P
q= (14.7)
A
Va = internal shear force Ma = internal bending moment
Vn = nominal shear strength Mn = nominal moment strength qnet = net allowable soil bearing
Ωv = 1.5 = factor of safety for shear Ωb = 1.67 = factor of safety for pressure
Fy = yield stress bending moment qallowable = total allowable soil
Aw = area of web Fy = yield stress bearing pressure
Zx = plastic section modulus about pfooting = soil bearing pressure
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛
= allowable shear strength
𝛺𝛺
𝑣𝑣 neutral axis due to footing weight
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛
= allowable bending strength tfooting = thickness of footing
𝛺𝛺
𝑏𝑏
q = soil bearing pressure
P = column load applied
15.0 Storm Water Runoff Rational Method Runoff A = area of footing
Coefficients
Storm Water Drainage Categorized by Surface
Forested 0.059—0.2
16.0 Water Supply
Q = CfCiA (15.1)
Asphalt 0.7—0.95
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ∙∙∙ Hazen-Williams Formula
Brick 0.7—0.85
Cc = A1 + A2 + ∙∙∙
(15.2)
1.85
Concrete 0.8—0.95 10.44LQ
Shingle roof 0.75—0.95 hf = 1.85 4.8655 (16.1)
Q = peak storm water runoff rate (ft3/s) C d
Cf = runoff coefficient adjustment factor Lawns, well drained (sandy soil)
hf = head loss due to friction
C = runoff coefficient Up to 2% slope 0.05—0.1
(ft of H2O)
i = rainfall intensity (in./h) 2% to 7% slope 0.10—0.15 L = length of pipe (ft)
A = drainage area (acres) Over 7% slope 0.15—0.2
Q = water flow rate (gpm)
Lawns, poor drainage (clay soil) C = Hazen-Williams constant
Runoff Coefficient Up to 2% slope 0.13—0.17 d = diameter of pipe (in.)
Adjustment Factor 2% to 7% slope 0.18—0.22
Over 7% slope 0.25—0.35 Dynamic Head
Return Period Cf Driveways, 0.75—0.85
dynamic head = static head
1, 2, 5, 10 1.0 Categorized by Use – head loss (16.2)
25 1.1 Farmland 0.05—0.3 static head = change in elevation
50 1.2 Pasture 0.05—0.3 between source and
100 1.25 Unimproved 0.1—0.3 discharge
Parks 0.1—0.25
Cemeteries 0.1—0.25 17.0 Heat Loss/Gain
Railroad yard 0.2—0.40
Playgrounds 0.2—0.35 Heat Loss/Gain
Business Districts
Neighborhood 0.5—0.7 Q′ = AU∆T (17.1)

City (downtown) 0.7—0.95 1

U= (17.2)
Residential R
Single-family 0.3—0.5 Q = thermal energy
Multi-plexes, 0.4—0.6 A = area of thermal conductivity
Multi-plexes, 0.6—0.75 U = coefficient of heat
Suburban 0.25—0.4 conductivity (U-factor)
Apartments, 0.5—0.7 ∆T = change in temperature
Industrial R = resistance to heat flow (R-
Light 0.5—0.8 value)
Heavy 0.6—0.9
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
7
18.0 Hazen-Williams Constants
Pipe Material Typical Range Clean New Pipe Typical Design Values
Cast Iron and Wrought Iron 80 - 150 130 100
Copper, Glass, or Brass 120 - 150 140 130
Cement-Lined Steel or Iron n/a 150 140
Plastic PVC or ABS 120 - 150 140 130
Steel (welded and seamless)
80 - 150 140 100
or interior riveted

19.0 Equivalent Length of (Generic) Fittings

Pipe Size
Screwed Fittings 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
Regular 90 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Regular 45 degree 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Line Flow 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12.0 17.0
Tees Branch Flow 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
Return Regular 180 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Globe 21.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 29.0 37.0 42.0 54.0 62.0 79.0 110.0
Gate 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Valves Angle 12.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
Swing Check 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 38.0
Strainer 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18.0 20.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 42.0

Pipe Size
Flanged Fittings 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Regular 90 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Elbows Long radius 90 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Regular 45 degree 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 16.0
Line Flow 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6
Tees Branch Flow 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12.0 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 43.0 47.0
Return Regular 180 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Bends Long radius 180 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Globe 38.0 40.0 45.0 54.0 59.0 70.0 77.0 94.0 120.0 150.0 190.0. 260.0 310.0 390.0
Gate 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Valves Angle 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 21.0 22.0 285.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 190.0 210.0
Swing Check 3.8 5.3 7.2 10.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 27.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0

© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
8
 20.0 555 Timer Design 21.A Boolean Algebra

T = 0.693 (RA + 2RB)C (20.1) Boolean Theorems Consensus Theorems

1 X• 0 = 0 (21.1) �Y = X + Y
X+X
f = T
(20.2) (21.16)

X•1 = X (21.2) �Y
X+X �= X + Y
� (21.17)
(RA+ RB)
duty-cycle =
(RA+2RB)
∙100% (20.3) X• X =X (21.3) � + XY =�X
X ���+ Y (21.18)
� =0
X•X (21.4) � + XY
X �= X
�+ Y
� (21.19)
T = period
f = frequency X+0=X (21.5)
RA = resistance A DeMorgan’s Theorems
RB = resistance B X+1=1 (21.6)
�����
XY = X�+�
Y (21.20)
C = capacitance X+X=X (21.7)
�������
X+Y = � �
X•Y (21.21)
X+�
X=1 (21.8)

21.B Resistor Color Code � =X

X (21.9) Commutative Law
X•Y = Y•X (21.10)

X+Y = Y+X (21.11)

Associative Law
X(YZ) = (XY)Z (21.12)

X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (21.13)

21.C Capacitor Distributive Law

Code X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ (21.14)

(X+Y)(W+Z) = XW+XZ+YW+YZ (21.15)

23.A G&M Codes

G00 = Rapid Traverse (23.1)

G01 = Straight Line Interpolation (23.2)
G02 = Circular Interpolation (clockwise) (23.3)
G03 = Circular Interpolation (c-clockwise) (23.4)
G04 = Dwell (wait) (23.5)
G05 = Pause for user intervention (23.6)
G20 = Inch programming units (23.7)
22.0 Speeds and Feeds G21 = Millimeter programming units (23.8)
G80 = Canned cycle cancel (23.9)
G81 = Drilling cycle (23.10)
CS�12in.
ft
� G82 = Drilling cycle with dwell (23.11)
N= (22.1)
πd 23.B Roll Angle G90 = Absolute Coordinates (23.12)
G91 = Relative Coordinates (23.13)
fm = ft·nt·N (22.2)
M00 = Pause (23.14)
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Plunge Rate = ½·fm 𝜃𝜃Roll = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇−1 � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � M01 = Optional stop (23.15)
N = spindle speed (rpm) (23.26) M02 = End of program (23.16)
CS = cutting speed (ft/min) M03 = Spindle on (23.17)
d = diameter (in.) M05 = Spindle off (23.18)
fm = feed rate (in./min) M06 = Tool change (23.19)
ft = feed (in./tooth/rev) M08 = Accessory # 1 on (23.20)
nt = number of teeth M09 = Accessory # 1 off (23.21)
M10 = Accessory # 2 on (23.22)
M11 = Accessory # 2 off (23.23)
M30 = Program end and reset (23.24)
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc. M47 = Rewind (23.25)
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
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 24.0 Aerospace Propulsion Energy
F N = W�vj - vo � (24.4) K = 12 mv2 (24.8)
Forces of Flight
2D
I = Fave ∆t (24.5) − GMm
CD = (24.1) U= R
(24.9)
Aρv2 Fnet = Favg - Fg (24.6)
ρvl GMm
R e= (24.2) a=
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓
(24.7) E=U+K=− 2R
(24.10)
μ ∆t

m3
2L FN = net thrust G = 6.67 × 10−11 kg × 𝑠𝑠2
CL = Aρv2
(24.3)
W = air mass flow
(24.11)

vo = flight velocity K = kinetic energy

Moment: See 9.7b
vj = jet velocity m = mass
I = total impulse v = velocity
CL = coefficient of lift Fave = average thrust force U = gravitational potential energy
CD = coefficient of drag Δt = change in time (thrust G = universal gravitation constant
L = lift duration) M = mass of central body
D = drag Fnet = net force m = mass of orbiting object
A = wing area Favg = average force R = Distance center main body to
ρ = density Fg = force of gravity center of orbiting object
Re = Reynolds number
vf = final velocity E = Total Energy of an orbit
v = velocity
a = acceleration MEarth= 5.97 x 1024 kg
l = length of fluid travel
Δt = change in time (thrust rEarth = 6.378 x 103 km
μ = fluid viscosity
duration)
F = force
NOTE: Fave and Favg are easily
m = mass Orbital Mechanics
confused.
g = acceleration due to gravity
M = moment b2
𝑒𝑒 =�1 - (24.16)
Atmosphere Parameters a2
3 3
Bernoulli’s Law T = 15.04 - 0.00649h (24.13) a2 a2
T = 2π = 2π (24.17)
ρv2 ρv2 (T + 273.1) 5.256 √μ √GM
�Ps + 2 1
� = �Ps + 2 2
� (24.12) p = 101.29 � � (24.14)
288.08 GMm
F= r2
(24.18)
p
PS = static pressure ρ= (24.15)
v = velocity 0.2869(T + 273.1) 𝑒𝑒 = eccentricity
ρ = density T = temperature b = semi-minor axis
h = height a =semi-major axis
p = pressure T = orbital period
ρ = density a = semi-major axis
μ = gravitational parameter
F = force of gravity between two
bodies
G = universal gravitation constant
M =mass of central body
m = mass of orbiting object
r = distance between center of two
objects
25.0 Environmental Sustainability

colonies/mL = # colonies/dilution (25.1)

# of transformants final volume at recovery
Transformation Efficiency (# Transformants/μg) =
μg of DNA
∙ volume plated (mL)
(25.2)

# of moles of CO2 # of moles consumed in experiment

= (25.3)
# of moles of glucose produced in formula # of moles of glucose produced in experiment
GDP2 - GDP1
Economic Growth = (25.4)
GDP1
GDP = gross domestic product
distance the substance travels Rf = retention factor
Rf = (25.5)
distance the solvent travels
© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
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 26.0 USCS Soil Classification Chart

© 2022 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
11