Session 2023-24

Subject- Chemistry
Investigatory project on-
STUDY OF THE METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF
WATER
Submitted to: Mr. Pronoy Sir
Submitted by: Mir Mahamad Saif
Class: XI ‘OAK’ Roll no:
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mir Mahamad Saif of class11th
‘OAK’ has completed the project work in chemistry
in the year 2022-23 on “STUDY OF THE METHODS
OF PURIFICATION OF WATER ” under the guidance of
Mr.pronay Sir as prescribed by CBSE course.
It is further certified that this project is the individual
work of the student.

Internal Examiner Principal’s Signature

School Stamp
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my subject teacher Mr. Pronoy
Sir to give her guidance to make the
successful completion of this project. I also
want to give special thanks to our principal
Sir Bipin Bihari Singh who gave me this
golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic “STUDY OF THE METHODS
OF PURIFICATION OF WATER ”, so that I will get
to know about detailed information for the
same. Secondly I would like to thank my
parents and classmates who helped me to
complete this project within the given time
frame.

TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 2
 1.1 Overview of Water Purification................................................................................. 2

1.2 Significance of Purification....................................................................................... 2

1.3 History of Water Purification.................................................................................... 2

OBJECTIVE OF STUDY............................................................................................. 3

LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................. 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS.................................................................................... 5

4.1 Physical Methods of Purification............................................................................. .5

4.2 Chemical Methods of Purification............................................................................ 9

4.3 Biological Methods of Purification.......................................................................... 11

4.4 Analysis of Water Purification System in Nepal..................................................... 13

CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................... 15

RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.......................................... 16

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 17

ABBREVIATIONS
TDS: Total Dissolved Solid

TSS: Total Suspended Solid

PAH: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls

WASH: Water, Sanitation and Health

DWSS: Department of Water Supply and Sanitation

ABSTRACT
Water purification is the process of removing impurities from water to make it safe for human
consumption and other uses. There are various methods of water purification, including physical,
chemical, and biological processes. Some common methods include boiling, filtration, sedimentation,
distillation, solar disinfectant and reverse osmosis. Each method has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on the specific impurities present in the water, as well
as the intended use of the purified water. In addition, there are several new technologies that are being
developed to purify water, including the use of nanotechnology and ultraviolet light.

In this report, we will discuss the brief overview and history along with the detailed analysis on various
methods of water purification, including their principles, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific
impurities they can remove. We will also discuss new technologies that are being developed for water
purification and their potential applications. The aim of this report is to provide a comprehensive
overview of the current state of water purification technology as well as to provide information on a
current condition of water in Nepal, highlighting the challenges and potential solutions for improving
water quality in the country.

KEYWORDS
Purification

Chlorination

Reverse Osmosis

Filtration

Coagulation

Flocculation

Sedimentation

Ozonation

Chemical Methods

Bioremediation

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of Water Purification
For the survival of living organisms, cruciality of water is not uncommon in the human’s mind. From the
beginning of human civilization, people have been dependent on the water sources for several activities
like household, recreation, irrigation, transportation, etc. As water plays an important role in digestion,
metabolism, thermoregulation, homeostasis, and other vital physiological activities in our body, its
importance is indeterminable for the human survival. Thus, the need of purifying the water from
available water sources soon started to emerge leading to various inventions and methods, what we
define in a term, water purification. Water purification is a process of removing impurities and
contaminants from water to make it safe for human consumption and other uses. The process includes
the removal of undesired chemical compounds, organic and inorganic materials and biological
contaminants. The scale of water purification varies from the large (for eg. municipal water purification
system) to the smaller ones (for eg. the individual households).

1.2 Significance of Water Purification

One of the major call for the water purification is for the human consumption sector. Clean water is
essential for human health and survival and thus, must be devoid of any unfavorable contaminants. The
consumption of unpurified water may result in the intake of harmful microorganisms and suspended
particles that can cause definitive harm to our normal physiological activities of our body. Water
purification significantly helps in the reduction of the risks of water- borne diseases, dehydration and
fatal allergies. The removal of carcinogenic materials also helps to eliminate the malignant tissues to
arise in body, thus preventing several gastrointestinal cancers. According to the research article
published by Niemiec Tomasz by Polish Gynecological Society, “The Chemical contaminants of drinking
could be responsible for spontaneous abortion, birth defects and perinatal complications.” Thus, pure
water can be a requisite for pregnant woman to avoid fetal irregularities and death. Apart from
stabilizing human health, the water purification also meets the needs of medical, pharmacological,
chemical, and industrial applications for clean and potable water.

1.3 History of Water Purification

The history of water purification can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where rudimentary methods
such as straining and boiling were utilized to remove impurities from water. The earliest recorded
attempts to find or generate pure water date back to2000 B.C. Early Sanskrit writings outlined methods
for purifying water. These methods ranged from boiling or placing hot metal instruments in water before
drinking it to filtering that water through crude sand or charcoal filters (Baker & Taras, 1981). The sole
objective of then purifying water was for a better taste. However, it wasn't until the advent of modern
chemistry and microbiology in the 19th century that moresophisticated techniques for water purification
began to emerge. One of the earliest examples of this was the development of sand filtration, which
utilized granular media to trap particles and microorganisms. Also, Hippocrates invented “Hippocratic
sleeve”, a filtering cloth bag to “purify” the water he used for his patients.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the advent of chemical disinfectants such as chlorine
 Fig I: Egyptians siphoning off water clarified

revolutionized the water treatment industry by providing a more effective means of eradicating
pathogenic microorganisms. Additionally, the development of coagulation and flocculation by
sedimentation (Thebes, 1450 BC) processes, which utilize chemical compounds to cause suspended
particles to aggregate, further improved the efficiency of water purification. In the later 20th
century,more advances in membrane filtration technology, such as reverse osmosis and microfiltration
were achieved along with UV disinfection and ozonation, resulting in effective water purification system.
Overall, the history of water purification has been characterized by a gradual evolution of increasingly
sophisticated techniques, driven by advancements in scientific understanding and technology.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The research report aims for the following objectives:

i. To evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of various methods of water purification, including
physical, chemical, and biological methods.
ii. To identify any potential drawbacks or limitations of each method and to make recommendations for
the most appropriate method for different water sources and uses.

iii. To analyze the current scenario of water purification system in Nepal and draw conclusions and
recommendations for the further improvement in the following sector.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In the case of the purification of water, previous research has focused on various methods for removing
impurities, including physical, chemical, and biological methods. Physical methods, such as filtration and
sedimentation, have been widely studied and are commonly used in water treatment plants. Research
has shown that these methods can effectively remove particles and microorganisms, but may not be able
to remove dissolved substances such as dissolved minerals and chemicals. A study published in the
Journal of Environmental Management, 2015 evaluated the effectiveness of 99.9% by sand filtration and
99.7% gravel filtration in removing bacteria and viruses from water. For chemical methods, such as
chlorination and ozonation, research has shown that these methods can effectively kill or remove
harmful microorganisms, but may also produce harmful by-products such as trihalomethanes. A study
published in the Journal of Water and Health, 2011 found that chlorination was effective in removing
99.99% of bacteria and viruses, while ozonation was effective in removing 99.97% of it.Biological
methods, such as the use of bacteria and algae, have been studied as a way to remove dissolved
substances and nutrients from water. Research has shown that these methods can be effective, but may
not be practical for large-scale water treatment. Study published in the Journal of Water Reuse and
Desalination, 2019 evaluated the effectiveness of using bacteria and algae to remove dissolved nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus from water. The study found that the biological treatment was able to
remove more than 90% of the dissolved nutrients in the water. Other studies have evaluated other
methods such as reverse osmosis, ultraviolet disinfection, and ion exchange. Overall, there is a wide
range of research on the purification of water with several methods, with advantages and disadvantages
depending on the specific requirements and constraints of the situation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study primarily enumerates the several methods of purification into three different categories,
physical, chemical and biological methods.

4.1 Physical Methods

The physical method of water purification involves using physical processes to remove impurities from
water. The physical method is significantly practiced to remove the impure suspended particles and
microorganisms effectively. In the report, discussion palette around methods like boiling, sedimentation
and decantation, filtration.

i. Boiling
Boiling is considered the world’s oldest, most common, and one of the most effective methods for
treating water. If done properly, boiling kills or deactivates all bacteria, viruses, protozoa (including cysts)
and helminths that cause diarrheal disease. . The heat from boiling causes the organisms to denature, or
lose their structural integrity, which kills them. Pathogens are killed when the temperature reaches 100
degrees Celsius. In high-lying areas, where the boiling temperature of water can be as low as 80 degrees
Celsius, a longer boiling time is necessary to kill all pathogens. To practice boiling, water is heated over a
fire or stove until it starts boiling. Different fuel sources can be used depending on local availability and
cost (e.g. wood, charcoal,biomass, biogas, kerosene, propane, solar panels, electricity). Water bubbling
as it boils provides an easy to recognize as a visual indicator and thus, does not need a temperature
indicator. Recommended boiling times vary between organizations. The World Health Organization
recommends that water be heated until it reaches the boiling point (WHO). If the boiling point is
reached, boiling is effective at inactivating all the bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that cause diarrheal
disease. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends a rolling boil of 1 minute, to
ensure that users do not stop heating the water before the true boiling point is reached (CDC,2009).On
inspecting its efficiency, the boiling provides a reliable method of decontaminating water from bacteria,
helminths, protozoa and viruses. The enteric pathogens include Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli,
Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Hepatitis A Virus, Adenovirus 5, Cryptosporidium
parvum, Giardia, etc. only showed the survivality of 5-10% in less than a minute (World Health
Organization 2015. Last updated in January 2015). It showed about 40-50% of decontamination of
soluble particles like Ca and Mg. However, the inefficiency of boiling to remove TDS and TSS cannot be
ignored for. Boiling holds several advantages against other methods. It is a simple method that uses
common knowledge for the purification. It is a cost-effective and locallysustainable method of
purification. It is effective in inactivation of many bacteria,viruses and protozoa, even in turbid or
contaminated water. However, the downsides lie in its inefficiency of removing suspended and dissolved
particles. It is a time-consuming process as the water must be cooled for few mithe boiling do require a
considerable amount of energy. There is lack of residual protection against contamination which may
contaminate the water again after the process. It plays a significant role in indoor pollution and CO2
emission and the users may have potential taste objections. Thus, boiling is an easy and effective method
of purification applicable in smaller area size with a good fuel supply, a cultural tradition of boiling, and
where water is stored safely after boiling.nutes before being suitable for drinking and although being a
locally sustainable method,the boiling do require a considerable amount of energy. There is lack of
residual protection against contamination which may contaminate the water again after the process. It
plays a significant role in indoor pollution and CO2 emission and the users may have potential taste
objections. Thus, boiling is an easy and effective method of purification applicable in smaller area size
with a good fuel supply, a cultural tradition of boiling, and where water is stored safely after boiling.
ii. Filtration
Filtration ia a physical process used to purify water by removing impurities andparticles through the use
of a physical barrier. The filtration often includes the removal of suspended and colloidal particles from
water. There are drawings and writings from more than 6000 years ago that illustratesimple water
filtration processes. Most notably, Ancient Sanskrit and Greek writings recommended water treatment
methods. These writings describe early water treatment as: “Impure water should be purified by being
boiled over a fire, and then allowed to cool, or may be purified by filtration through sand and coarse
gravel.” (Jadhav, Aasawari, 2014).

It is an effective method of purification of water that can be conducted both in household and industrial
level. While in household, this is practiced as a whole system while in the water treatment industries,
water filtration often falls under one of the many steps of water purification. Although the basic
mechanism of all water filtration is same, there are several techniques invented to ease out the process
for various constraints and situations. Rapid sand filtration is a physical process that removes suspended
solids from the water. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon
or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste
and odour. In fact, during rapid sand filtration, the water flows at a rate up to 20 meters per hour. The
filters are generally cleaned twice per day with backwashing filters and are put back into operation
immediately. Membrane filters are commonly used to filter drinking water and sewage. Membrane
filters for drinking water can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 μm, including Giardia and
Cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse
the water for industry, limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the water into a river used by
towns downstream. Household filtration system includes number of filtration devices like cermaic candle

Fig III: Cutway view of a rapid sand filter (Source: Wikipedia)

filter, Iron filter, Activated carbon filter and chulli pasteurization providing an reliable method of water
purification. Filtration has several advantages as a water purification method. One of the main
advantages is that it is relatively low cost and easy to maintain. Additionally, filtration can effectively
remove a wide range of impurities and particles, including bacteria, viruses, and dissolved solids.
However, filtration also has some disadvantages. One of the main disadvantages is that it can be less
effective than other methods at removing certain types of impurities, such as dissolved gases and very
small particles. Also, it cannot filter out small viruses and bacteria. Additionally, filters can become
clogged over time, reducing their effectiveness and requiring replacement. Furthermore, some filtration
methods require certain types of filter or replacement membrane, which can increase the cost of the
filtration process. Thus, the filtration is often preferred with other methods for a reliable water
purification.

iii. Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

The coagulation process involves adding iron or aluminum salts, such as aluminum sulphate, ferric
sulphate, ferric chloride or polymers, to the water. These chemicals are called coagulants, and have a
positive charge. The positive charge of the coagulant neutralizes the negative charge of dissolved and
suspended particles in the water. When this reaction occurs, the particles bind together, or coagulate
(this process is sometimes also called flocculation). The larger particles, or floc, are heavy and quickly
settle to the bottom of the water supply. This settling process is called sedimentation. The following
diagram illustrates the basic reactions and processes that occur during coagulation.

Fig IV: Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

Coagulation can successfully remove a large amount of organic compounds, including some dissolved
organic material, which is referred to as Natural Organic Matter (NOM) or Dissolved Organic Carbon
(DOC). Coagulation can also remove suspended particles, including inorganic precipitates, such as iron. A
large amount of DOC can give water an unpleasant taste and odour, as well as a brown discoloration.
According to the study "Evaluation of the Efficiency ofCoagulationFlocculationSedimentation Processes
in the Removal of Heavy Metals" by M. B. Kurnaz et al. (2018), coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation
processes can be highly effective at removing heavy metals from water, with removal rates of up to 99%.
While coagulation can remove particles and some dissolved matter, the water may still contain
pathogens. In an international report published in 1998, it was found that coagulation and
sedimentation can only remove between 27%- 84 % of viruses and between 32% - 87% percent of
bacteria. Usually, the pathogens that are removed from the water are removed because they are
attached to the dissolved substances that are removed by coagulation. Advantages of this method
include that it is relatively inexpensive and easy to implement, it can remove a wide variety of
contaminants, and it is relatively safe and non-toxic. However, it also has some disadvantages, such as
the fact that it can produce a large amount of sludge, it is not very effective at removing dissolved
substances, and it can require a significant amount of space. As coagulation does not remove all of the
viruses and bacteria in the water, it cannot produce safe drinking water. It is, however, an important
primary step in the water treatment process, because coagulation removes many of the particles, such
as dissolved organic carbon, that make water difficult to disinfect. Thus, it should be used as part of a
comprehensive water treatment strategy and should be combined with other methods, such as filtration
and disinfection, to ensure that the water is safe todrink.

*Note: As Coagulation includes the uses of chemical like alum, it can also be considered as chemical
method for water purification.

iv. Reserve Osmosis (RO)

Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water purification method that uses a semi-permeable membrane to remove
impurities from water. The process works by applying pressure to water on one side of the membrane,
which forces the water molecules to pass through the membrane while leaving impurities, such as
dissolved salts and other particles, behind. Advantages of reverse osmosis include its ability to
effectively remove a wide range of impurities, including dissolved salts, bacteria, and other particles.
Even residentialgrade reverse osmosis filters can remove up to 99% of lead, asbestos and 82 other
additional contaminants. A study published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health found that the use of a reverse osmosis filtration system in households in rural Bangladesh
was associated with a significant reduction in diarrhea incidence. The process of reverse osmosis
typically involves several stages, including pretreatment to remove larger particles, the RO membrane
itself, and post-treatment to adjust the pH and disinfect the water. One of the biggest disadvantages to
reverse osmosis water systems is wasted water. Studies show various reverse osmosis systems can waste
between 3 and 20 times as much water as they produce. The list also include the high energy
consumption and the need for frequent membrane replacement. Additionally, the process can be less
effective in removing certain types of dissolved impurities, such as dissolved gases and organic
compounds and also eliminates many useful minerals from the water,resulting in household nutritional
crisis. Efficiency of Reverse Osmosis is highly dependent on the type and quality of membrane used, and
the nature of the water to be treated. Generally, it is around 70-95% efficient, with higher rates for
seawater and lower for brackish water. In conclusion, reverse osmosis is an effective method of water
purification that can remove a wide range of impurities. It is particularly useful in situations where the
water source is salt water or brackish water. However, it is important to consider the energy
consumption and cost of membrane replacement when deciding whether to use RO as a water
purification method.

4.2 Chemical Methods

The chemical method of water purification involves the use of chemicals to kill or remove impurities
from water. Some common types of chemical water purification methods include chlorination,
ozonation, and potassium permanganate treatment.

i. Chlorination
Chlorination is a process that involves adding chlorine or a chlorine-based chemical, such as calcium
hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite, to disinfect the water. This can be done through a variety of
methods, including adding the chlorine directly to the water or through a process called "indirect
chlorination," in which the chlorine is added to a separate holding tank and then mixed with the water.
Advantages of chlorination include its effectiveness at killing a wide range of pathogens, including
bacteria, viruses, and parasites, and its relatively low cost. It can kill 99.99% or more of the common
waterborne pathogens such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella, Legionella pneumophila, and Vibrio
cholerae. Chlorination is also relatively simple to implement and can be done at a variety of scales, from
small, individual wells to large municipal water systems.However, a major disadvantage of chlorination is
that it can create harmful byproducts, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs),
when chlorine reacts with naturallyoccurring organic matter in the water. These byproducts have been
linked to an increased risk of cancer and other health problems. Another disadvantage is that
chlorination does not remove other contaminants, such as Heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury, chromium),
pesticides, industrial chemicals (e.g. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs)), dissolved solids and turbidity. In conclusion, chlorination is an effective and widely-used method
for disinfecting water and making it safe to drink. However, it is important to be aware of the potential
risks associated with byproducts of chlorination and to consider other methods of water treatment, such
as filtration, in order to remove other contaminants. Chlorination is an important method of water
purification in areas with poor access to clean drinking water and also where water sources are prone to
pathogenic contamination.
 Fig V: Chlorination Plant

ii. Ozonation
Ozonation is a water purification method that uses ozone, a highly reactive form of oxygen, to kill
bacteria and other microorganisms, remove dissolved iron and manganese, and reduce the levels of
chlorine-resistant parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The process of ozonation typically
involves injecting ozone into the water to be treated, either by bubbling it through the water or by using
a specialized ozone generator. The ozone is then allowed to react with the water for a certain amount of
time before it is neutralized and the water is sent to a filtration system. The main advantage of ozonation
is its high level of effectiveness in killing a wide range of microorganisms, including those that are
resistant to chlorine. It has a stronger germicidal property than chlorine. A study published in the Journal
of Water and Healthfound that ozonation was able to reduce the levels of Cryptosporidium and Giardia
in water by 99.9%. Also, it removes color, taste and odor from contaminated water.Additionally,
ozonation does not produce harmful disinfection byproducts (DBPs) like chlorine does. One disadvantage
of ozonation is that it can be relatively expensive to implement, especially in larger systems. Additionally,
ozonation can be less effective in treating water with high levels of dissolved minerals such as iron and
manganese. In conclusion, ozonation is a highly effective water purification method that is particularly
useful in killing microorganisms that are resistant to chlorine.

4.3 Biological Methods

Biological water purification refers to the use of living organisms, such as bacteria and plants, to remove
pollutants and impurities from water. These methods can be effective in removing pollutants such as
nitrogen and phosphorus, which can cause harmful algal blooms, as well as pathogens and other
microorganisms that can make water unsafe to drink. They can also be more sustainable and cost-
effective than other forms of water purification, such as chemical treatment.

i. Slow Sand Filters

A slow sand filter is a type of water purification method that uses a layer of active biological material,
such as microorganisms, to remove impurities from water. The water is passed through a bed of sand at
a slow rate, allowing the microorganisms to break down organic matter and remove pathogens. To
operate a slow sand filter, water is fed into the top of the filter and flows through the sand bed at a slow
rate, typically around 0.1 to 0.2 meters per hour. As the water flows through the sand, impurities are
removed through a combination of physical and biological processes. The filtered water is collected at
the bottom of the filter.

Fig VI: A illustrative model of Slow Sand Filter (Source: Dream Civil)

Slow sand filters are recognized by the World Health Organization, Oxfam, and the United States
Environmental Protection Agency as being superior technology for the treatment of surface water
sources. Advantages of slow sand filters include their ability to remove a wide range of impurities,
including bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, as well as their low energy and maintenance requirements.
According to a study by WHO in 2018, slow sand filter efficiency have been found to be between 90-99%
for bacteria, protozoa, and viruses. They are also relatively inexpensive to construct and operate. Slow
sand filters do not require chemicals or electricity to operate. One of the main disadvantages of slow
sand filters is their susceptibility to clogging and the need for regular maintenance. They can also be less
effective in removing certain types of pollutants, such as dissolved inorganic compounds and dissolved
gases. In conclusion, slow sand filters are a cost-effective and low-maintenance way of purifying water,
especially in communities or rural areas where there is limited access to other purification methods and
resources. They are most suitable for small communities and households that have a reliable water
source and the capacity for regular maintenance

ii. Bioremediation

Bioremediation is a method of water purification that utilizes microorganisms to break down pollutants
and contaminants in water. The microorganisms consume the pollutants as a food source, breaking them
down into less harmful compounds or removing them entirely from the water. Bioremediation can be
performed using a variety of techniques, including: injection of microorganisms directly into the water
source, use of constructed wetlands or bioreactors to provide a controlled environment for the
microorganisms to thrive and even addition of nutrient sources, such as fertilizer, to promote the growth
of microorganisms. The efficiency of bioremediation can vary depending on the type of pollutant and the
method used. For example, a study of oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico found that bioremediation was able
to remove over 90% of the oil within two weeks, while a study of bioremediation for the removal of
pesticides from water found that the method was only able to remove about 50% of the pollutants.
Advantages of bioremediation include its cost-effectiveness and its ability to target a wide range of
pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, and oil. In addition, bioremediation can be performed in
situ, meaning that it takes place in the natural environment, rather than requiring the water to be
transported to a treatment facility. Disadvantages of bioremediation include its slow pace, particularly in
the case of highly toxic pollutants, and its dependence on favorable environmental conditionssuch as
temperature, pH, and oxygen levels. The microorganisms used in bioremediation are able to break down
pollutants and contaminants, but they may not be able to remove all impurities or pathogens from the
water. Therefore, it is often necessary to perform additional treatment steps, such as filtration or
disinfection, to ensure that the water meets the appropriate quality standards for drinking water. In
conclusion, bioremediation is an effective method of water purification that can target a wide range of
pollutants, is cost-effective and can be performed in situ. However, it can be slow and is dependent on
favorable environmental conditions. Thus, it is important to use bioremediation in the right conditions
and in combination with other methods to achieve the best results.

4.4 Analysis of Water Purification System in Nepal

Access to clean water is a significant problem in Nepal. Many rural communities rely on surface water
sources, such as rivers and ponds, which are often contaminated with bacteria and other pollutants. In
urban areas, the situation is slightly better, but many people still lack access to piped water and must rely
on wells or other sources that may be contaminated. The Government of Nepal has made its
considerable efforts to improve the water supply and sanitation situation in the country by formulating
and enforcing a number of WASH policies, guidelines and acts for the last two decades. In 1997, the
government formulated a comprehensive 20 years’ Water and Sanitation Strategies by setting a target of
achieving 100% sanitation coverage in the country by 2017 AD. Data of DWSS (2018) shows that about
87 percent of the total population have access to basic water supply facility. Disparity in water supply
facility can be observed among seven provinces of Nepal. The coverage of water supply facility is lowest
(70.45%) in the Karnali Pradesh, which is mainly composed of remote and mountain district.

In rural areas most of piped water stands are found in the public places nearby houses. The piped water
connection to houses or personal premises is less common in rural areas. Only some well-off households
are able to have piped water connection to their houses in their own efforts. It is also evident from data
that 35 percent of richest households have access to piped water in courtyard or home. But households
from poorest quintiles are less likely to have piped water connection in their home. Available data
indicates that there is a disparity in accessing and using piped water between rich and poor.Among the
purification methods, the most popularly used techniques include boiling, filtration, use of chlorine
tablets in

Table II: Water supply type on the basis of eco-regions. (Source: DWSSM 2019).
Apart from the efforts done by the Nepalese government for the access of drinking water to all regions,
the problem still persists in many communities of Nepal. The urban area often faces the scarcity of water
sources due to overpopulation and unmanaged urbanization, causing them to buy expensive industrial
water supplies. Also, the unmanaged industrialization and urbanization have given rise to improper
drainage system causing almost every river to be mixed with the sewage. This has also been a root issue
which has been unsolved for years and the condition is only getting worse each year. In rural area, many
people still have no nearby access to drinking water. In many Himalayan regions like Jumla, Mustang and
Manang, people have to walk miles to fetch the water from the public tap, taking them hours to reach
there.

Even the access of groundwater and tube wells have only invited several lethal materials accumulated in
it, causing deaths of many people. According to a study published in the Journal of Environmental
Science and Health in 2011, an estimated 3 million people in Nepal are at risk of consuming arsenic-
contaminated water from shallow wells. The study, conducted by a team of researchers from Nepal,
Japan, and the United States, found that the highest levels of arsenic were present in the Terai region of
Nepal, where shallow aquifers are the primary source of drinking water. In a context where basic water
supply is poor, compromised drinking water quality poses multiple risks to health where climate change
plays synergetic effect on human health with a range of effects like water- and vector-borne diseases,
climate-induced disasters, and infrastructural damage.

Solutions to the problem of water purification in Nepal include increasing access to clean water through
the construction of wells, and other sanitation facilities in rural areas, and educating people about the
importance of clean water and proper sanitation practices. Additionally, there is a need to improve the
infrastructure and governance of the water and sanitation sector, as well as increasing investment in the
sector.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the purification of water is a crucial step in ensuring safe and clean drinking water for
human consumption and various other industrial and agricultural uses. Chemical, physical, and biological
methods are widely used to purify water, each with its own advantages and limitations. Chemical
methods of water purification, such as chlorination and ozonation, involve the use of chemicals to kill
bacteria and other microorganisms in the water. These methods are effective and widely used, but they
can also have negative effects on the taste and smell of the water, as well as potential health risks if not
properly monitored. Physical methods of water purification, such as filtration and sedimentation, involve
removing impurities from the water through physical means. These methods are effective at removing
physical impurities, but they may not be able to completely remove microorganisms or dissolved
substances. Biological methods of water purification, such as slow sand filters and bioremediation
involve the use of living organisms to purify the water. These methods can be effective at removing
impurities, but they require careful management to maintain the appropriate conditions for the
organisms to thrive. The situation of water in Nepal is unique, with a lack of infrastructure and resources
leading to inadequate access to clean water for many communities. It is important for continued
research and development in water purification methods, as well as investment in infrastructure and
education, to improve access to clean water in Nepal and other areas facing similar challenges.

RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A potential area for further research on the purification of water could be the development and
implementation of sustainable, low-cost water treatment systems, particularly for use in developing
countries such as Nepal. This could involve researching and combiningdifferent treatment methods, such
as chemical and biological processes, to create an effective and efficient system. Another area of
research could focus on the study of combining different purification methods for a more comprehensive
approach. For example, combining physical, chemical and biological methods to create a multi-barrier
system for water purification. Investigating the effectiveness of natural and sustainable purification
methods such as constructed wetlands and phytoremediation could also be a valuable avenue of
research.

Another important aspect is to research on the correlation between water quality and human health.
This could include studying the impact of different purification methods on the presence of
contaminants such as heavy metals and micro plastics in drinking water and their potential effects on
human health.

In summary, further research on methods of water purification could focus on developing more cost-
effective and efficient methods, studying the long-term effects of different methods on the quality of
water and the environment, and investigating the correlation between water quality and human health.
Additionally, studying the long-term impacts and effectiveness of these systems in real-world settings
would be valuable. Another area of research could be the investigation of alternative sources of water,
such as rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse, in regions where water scarcity is a significant issue.
REFERENCES
1. Water_purification, Dishyant Yadav, 2012 (https://www.academia.edu/)

2. Why is Purified Drinking Water Healthy| Flowater (home.flowater.com)

3. Frank Bove, Youn Shim, and Perri Zeitz, rinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes:
a review, Feb 2002

4. James Grellier , James Bennett, Evridiki Patelarou, Rachel B Smith, Mireille B Toledano, Lesley Rushton,
David J Briggs, Mark J Nieuwenhuijsen, Exposure to disinfection by-products, fetal growth, and
prematurity: a systematic review andmeta-analysis, May 2010

5. History of Water Purification (www.luminoruv.com)

6. Water Purification- Steps and Procedure (www.britannica.com)

7. GopalKumara, D.R.Senab, B.K.Raoc, R.S.Kurothed, NyonandYadav, eP.R.Bhatnagard and UdayMandal,

Empirical evaluation of sand filters to evolve practical designs for artificial recharge through dry wells,
2016

8. Water purification- an overview (www.sciencedirect.com)

9. Water purification (www.wikipedia.com)

10. Chlorination and Ozonation (www.wikipedia.com)

11. MN Fazly, Water treatment process using conventional and advanced methods: A comparative study
of Malaysia and selected countries, 2012

12. Budhathoki C. B. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene situation in Nepal: a review. Journal of Health
Promotion 7, 2019
13. Jonathan Levy, Drinking water quality in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley: a survey and assessment of
selected controlling site characteristics, 2007

14. Biological water purification (dutchwatertech.net)