Atomic Physics – part -2

❑
According to Pauli exclusion principle no two electrons can have the
same four quantum numbers n, 𝑙, ml , m s . Even if the two electrons
have the same values of n, 𝑙, ml they must have different m s

Thus every electron in atom differs from every other electron.

Pauli exclusion principle is important in determining the arrangement

of electrons in atoms.

The orbits with principle quantum number is n=1,2,3,4 are

called K, L, M, N shells. These shells are further divided into
sub shells or orbitals with 𝒍 =0,1,2,3
• Since all electrons in a sub shell have the same values
of n and 𝑙 they must have either different 𝑚𝑙 or 𝑚𝑠
• 𝑚𝑙 can gave (2𝑙+1) values and 𝑚𝑠 can have 2
values.
• A sub shell can have a maximum of 2(2𝑙+1) electrons.
• As 𝑙 varies from 0 to (n-1) , maximum number of
electrons in a shell can be σ𝑙=𝑛−1
𝑙=0 2(2𝑙 + 1) =
2{1+3+5+7+-----+(2n-1)}
1+ 2𝑛−1
•= 2{ } = 2n2
2
• Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2n 2
❑ Pauli exclusion principle:
❑ Magnetic moment due
to orbital motion of an
electron
When the electron revolves
round the nucleus in an orbit it 𝑰
gives rise to a current 𝐼
The revolving electron is
equivalent to a current loop.

Magnitude of the orbital

magnetic dipole moment
𝑒
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐼 A I =
𝑇
e – magnitude of the electron
charge and T it’s orbital period.
 e
Current I = , if the electron travels in a circular orbit
T
2𝜋𝑟
T= where r is the radius of the orbit and v the
𝑣 e
velocity of the electron in the orbit. ∴ 𝐼 = v
2π𝑟
area of the orbit A = 𝜋 r 2
e
magnetic moment 𝜇𝑙 = 𝐼 A = vx 𝜋r2
2π𝑟
e 𝑒 e e
𝜇𝑙 =
2π𝑟
v𝜋 r2 =
2
𝑣r =
2𝑚
𝑚vr =
2𝑚
𝐿

( 𝑚 v r = 𝐿 is the angular momentum of the electron)

e
𝜇𝑙 =
2𝑚
𝐿
 𝑒
• In vector form 𝜇𝑙 = - ( ) 𝐿 2𝑚
Because electron has a negative charge

Direction of the magnetic moment is anti parallel to

the angular momentum
e
𝜇𝑙 = 𝐿
2𝑚
ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2𝜋

e ℎ eh
• 𝜇𝑙 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1) = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2m 2𝜋 4πm
 eh
𝜇𝑙 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
4πm

eh
𝜇𝑙 = 𝜇𝐵 𝑙(𝑙 + 1) where 𝜇𝐵 = is called the Bohr
4πm
magneton for an electron.

1.6𝑥 10−19 𝑥 6.625𝑥 10−34

𝜇𝐵 = = 9.27x10−24 J/Tesla
4𝑥3.14 𝑥 9.1 𝑥 10−31

Bohr magneton is the least magnetic moment of an

electron can have.
❑ Magnetic moment due to spin motion
• Electron magnetic dipole moment, is the magnetic
moment of an electron caused by its intrinsic
properties of spin and electric charge.
• A rotating charged particle creates a magnetic dipole
and hence an electron behaves like a tiny bar magnet
with a magnetic moment
• An external magnetic field exerts a torque on the
electron magnetic moment depending on its
orientation with respect to the field.
❑The magnetic moment of an electron
• Orbital magnetic moment of an electron
e
is 𝜇𝑙 = 𝐿
2𝑚
e
• Similarly spin magnetic moment 𝜇𝑠 = g 𝑆Ԧ
2𝑚
• Where g is called the g factor of an electron which
depends upon the particle, which is 2 for an electron
e ℎ
𝜇𝑠 = 2x x 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
2𝑚 2𝜋
eh
• 𝜇𝑠 = 2x 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) , for a single
4πm
1
electron s =
2
 eh 1 1 1
𝜇𝑠 = 2x ( + 1) = 2 x 𝜇𝐵 x x 3
4πm 2 2 2

𝜇𝑠 = 𝜇𝐵 √3
The factor of two implies that the electron appears to be
twice as effective in producing a magnetic moment as the
corresponding classical charged body.

The spin g factor g = 2 comes from the Dirac equation, a

fundamental equation connecting the electron's spin with
its electromagnetic properties.

g it arises from the electron's interaction with virtual

photons in quantum electrodynamics
 ❑ STERN GERLACH EXPERIMENT
• The orbital and spin motions of the electrons in atoms endow the atoms with magnetic
moments.
• The experiment gives the insight for the existence of space quantization and magnetic
moments of atoms.

• It is based on the behavior of an atomic magnet (magnetic dipole) in a non uniform

magnetic field.
• In a uniform magnetic field the dipole experience a torque that tends to align the dipole
parallel to the field.

• If an atomic magnet passes normally through an non uniform magnetic field it will be
deviated from its rectilinear path.
CD is a tiny bar magnet of pole strength p
l is the length of the bar magnet
magnetic moment µ = P𝑙
𝑑𝐵
Non uniform magnetic field with field gradient is applied along x-axis
𝑑𝑧
B is field at point Cj
𝑑𝐵
B + 𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐷
𝑑𝑧
z 𝑑𝐵
p(B + 𝑙 cos 𝜃)
𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝐵 l Ѳ
𝑑𝑧 C

Silver atoms pB
B 𝑑𝐵
B+ 𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑧
 dB
• Variation of magnetic field is in the Z direction with the field gradient
dz
dB
• The field strength at the pole C is B and at the other pole D is B+ 𝑙 cos 𝜃
d𝑧
dB
• Forces at the two poles are PB and P(B+ 𝑙 cos 𝜃)
d𝑧
dB
• The translatory force experienced by the atomic magnet , Fz = P𝑙 cos 𝜃
d𝑧
dB
• F z= µcos 𝜃
dz
L
The time taken by the atomic magnet to travel through the field t =
V
( L the length of the field and V the velocity of the atomic magnet)
• The atomic magnet experiences an acceleration due to the translatory
𝐹𝑧
force which is 𝑎 =
𝑚

• The displacement of the atom along the field gradient on emerging out
𝐹𝑧 1 2
of the field 𝒔 = ½ ( ) t2 using s = ut+ at the initial velocity u of the
𝑚 2
atoms in the z-direction is zero.
𝐹𝑧 L dB µ cos 𝜃 L
• 𝒔=½ ( )( ) 2 = ½ ( ) ( )2
𝑚 V d𝑧 𝑚 V

𝐝𝐁 µz 𝐋
• 𝒔=½ ( ) ( )2 [µ cos θ] = µz = µB the resolved component of
𝐝𝒛 𝒎 𝐕
the magnetic field along the field direction
Relation between shift in the magnetic field (s) and shift observed on the plate(d):

The displacement of the atom along the field gradient on emerging out of the magnetic field = s
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = 𝑫
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = 𝑳
D
From similar triangles
d
𝑆 𝐿
𝑑 𝐷
= s
𝑆=
𝐿
d
d
𝐷
L
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝐷
The shift on the photographic plate = d = s x =sx𝐿
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔

The separation between the beams on the photographic plate = d+d = 2d.
𝐝𝐁 µB 𝐋
𝒔=∓½ ( ) (𝐕)2
𝐝𝒛 𝒎
❑Experimental arrangement
❑Experimental arrangement
• Silver is boiled in an Oven
• The slits S1 andS2 makes stream of silver atoms from the oven into a sharp linear beam.
• The non uniform magnetic field is produced by the pole-pieces MM through which the
atomic magnet passes.
• The magnetic field is at right to the direction of movement of the atoms.
• The beam produces a narrow continuous line on the plate with no field.
• The stream of silver atoms splits in to two beams in the presence of magnetic field.
• According to vector atom model the atoms with electron spin parallel to the field will
experience a force in one direction and those with perpendicular direction experience
force in opposite direction.
❑ Problem

1. A beam of silver atoms in a stern-Gerlach experiment obtained from an

oven heated to a temperature of 2000 K passes through an
inhomogeneous magnetic field having a field gradient 4 Tesla cm-1
perpendicular to the beam. The pole pieces are 10 cm long. What is the
separation between the two components of the beam on the
photographic plate at a distance of 50 cm.
Atomic mass of silver =108gm.
Solution
0.108
• Mass of silver atom = = 17.9x10-26 kg
6.023x1023
❑ Problem

• m = 17.9x10-26 kg L =10cm = 0.1m D= 50cm=0.5 m

•
𝑑𝐵
• T= 2000K = 4 Tesla cm-1 = 400 Tesla m-1
𝑑𝑥
•
𝒅𝑩 µz 𝑳
• 𝒔=½ ( ) ( )2
𝒅𝒛 𝒎 𝑽
𝜇𝑧 = 𝜇𝐵 = Bohr magneton= 9.253x10-24
3 3𝐾𝑇
• ½ mv2 = KT V= where
2 𝑚
• K= Boltzmann constant= 1.38x10-23, m = 17.9x10-26 kg T= 2000K
❑ Problem

1.38x 10−23 x2000

Velocity = = 680 m/s
17.9x10−26

1 9.253x10−24 0.1 2
S= x 400 x 𝑥 ( ) = 2.2 x10-4 m
2 17.9x10−26 680

𝐿 0.5
• d= s x = 2.2 x10-4 x = 11.16 x 0-4 m
𝐷 0.1

• Distance of separation between the beams on the photographic plate = 2xd

= 2 x 11.16x 0-4 = 22.32 x 10-4m

➢ Problem

2. In a Stern Gerlach Expt. Silver atoms traverse a distance of o.15m

through a nonhomogeneous magnetic field of gradient 45Tesla/m. If
the separation between two traces on the photographic plate is
0.18mmm , find the velocity of silver atoms. Mass of silver atom=
1.79x10-25 kg. Bohr Magneton = 9.2x10-24 J/kg.
•
➢ Problem

3. A narrow beam of silver atoms from an oven at 1250K passes

through the magnetic field of length 7 cm with the field of 10T/m in a
Stern – Gerlach experiment. Calculate the mechanical force and
acceleration of the silver atoms and also the separation of the beams
as they emerge from the magnetic field. Mass of silver atom= 1.79x10-
25 kg.
Larmour Precession

When an orbiting
electron is placed in a
magnetic field a
continues change in the
magnetic moment
vector takes place about
the field direction. This
precession is called
Larmour precession.
 Larmour Precession contd
➢ The angular velocity of precession of Larmor precession
𝒆
ω= B
𝟐𝒎
𝜔 𝑒
➢ Larmour frequency is ν𝐿 = = B ----- (1)
2𝜋 4𝜋𝑚
multiply eqn 1 numerator and denominator by Planck’s
constant.
𝑒ℎ 1
ω= B , Larmor frequency ν𝐿 = µB B
4𝜋𝑚 ℎ ℎ
• Larmour precession changes the energy of the system.
• Change in energy ∆E = 𝜇𝑙 . B = 𝜇𝑙 B cos𝜃
Change in energy due to Larmour precession ∆E = 𝜈𝐿 𝑚𝑙 h
• Problem 1. Calculate Larmour precessional frequency
of an electron for magnetic field B=1 tesla. Find the
value of change in energy for 𝒎𝒍 =1
𝑒
• Larmor frequency ν𝐿 = B
4𝜋𝑚
1.6𝑥 10−19𝑥1
• ν𝐿 = = 1.4x 1010 / s
4𝜋𝑥 9.1𝑥 10−31
• Energy change ∆E = 𝝂𝑳 𝒎𝒍 h
• ∆E = 1.4x 1010 x 1x 6.6x10-34 = 9.24x 10-24 J
❑ Zeeman Effect
• The Zeeman effect, named after the Dutch
physicist Pieter Zeeman, is the effect of splitting
of a spectral line into several components in the
presence of a static magnetic field. It is a
magneto optical Phenomena.
• (He won the Nobel Prize for the same in 1902)
❑ Zeeman Effect
The splitting of single spectral lines of an emission
or absorption spectrum of a substance into three or
more components when the substance is placed in a
magnetic field is called Zeeman Effect.

The effect occurs when several electron orbitals

in the same shell, which normally have the same
energy level, have different energies due to their
different orientations in the magnetic field.
❑ EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
❑ Experimental arrangement
• MM is an electromagnet capable of producing a very
strong magnetic field. It has conical pole pieces
through which holes have been drilled lengthwise.
• A source of light emitting spectral lines is placed
between the pole pieces. The spectral lines are
observed with the help of a spectrometer of high
resolving power.
• The magnetic field is switched on and the spectral line
is viewed longitudinally through the holes in the in
the pole pieces and hence parallel to the field
direction.
❑ Experimental arrangement
• MM is an electromagnet capable of producing a very
strong magnetic field. It has conical pole pieces
through which holes have been drilled lengthwise.
• A source of light emitting spectral lines is placed
between the pole pieces. The spectral lines are
observed with the help of a spectrometer of high
resolving power.
• The magnetic field is switched on and the spectral line
is viewed longitudinally through the holes in the in
the pole pieces and hence parallel to the field
direction.
 ❑ Longitudinal view
• In longitudinal view original line is split up into two
components. One with shorter and the other with
longer wavelength.
• These two components are found to be symmetrically
situated about the position of the parent line and
circularly polarised in opposite direction. ( analysis by
Nicol prism)
• Change in wavelength is known as Zeeman shift.
❑ Transverse view

• In transverse view original line is split up into three

components.
• The central line has the same wavelength as the
original one.
• The outer lines are symmetrically placed on either
side of the central line.
• All the lines are plane polarised.
• The central one is called π component and the outer
ones are called σ component.
❑ Debye’s explanation of Normal Zeeman effect.
• Debye’s explanation of Normal Zeeman effect is
without taking consideration of electron spin.
• The angular momentum of the electron due to
orbital motion is given by
• L = 𝑙 𝑙+1 ℏ
𝑒
• magnetic moment is 𝜇𝑙 = L
2𝑚
• The energy change due to Lamour precession is
𝑒 𝑒
• dE = 𝜇𝑙 . 𝐵 = L B cos𝜃 = LZ B
2𝑚 2𝑚
• LZ is the component of L along the field direction
 e eB
• dE = LZ B = LZ
2m 2m
ℎ
• LZ should be quantised. LZ = 𝑚𝑙
2𝜋
𝑒𝐵 ℎ 𝑒𝐵
• Energy change dE = 𝑚𝑙 = h 𝑚𝑙
2𝑚 2𝜋 4𝜋𝑚
𝑒𝐵
• Here = ν𝐿 is called the Larmour frequency
4𝜋𝑚
• dE = h ν𝐿 𝑚𝑙
𝑒ℎ
• Also energy change dE = B 𝑚𝑙
4𝜋𝑚
• dE = 𝜇𝐵 B 𝑚𝑙
• Where 𝜇𝐵 is called the Bohr magneton.
❑ Expression for Zeeman frequency shift

• Let Eo and E the energy states of an atom corresponds

to orbital quantum number 𝑙 with and without
magnetic field.
• E = Eo + dE → (1)
• Energy change due to Larmour precession
• dE = h ν𝑙 𝑚𝑙 → (2)
• Substitute equation 2 in 1
• E = Eo + h ν𝑙 𝑚𝑙 → (3)
• For another energy state of an atom with orbital
quantum number 𝑙 ′
• E ′ = Eo′ + dE’
• E’ = Eo ′ + h ν𝑙 𝑚𝑙 ’ ------ (4)
∆E E′ −𝐸
• The transitional frequency ν = =
ℎ ℎ
E′o −Eo h ν𝑙 (𝑚𝑙 ’ −𝑚𝑙 )
•ν = + = ν𝑜 + ν 𝑙 ∆ 𝑚𝑙
ℎ ℎ
• According to the selection rule
• ∆ 𝑚𝑙 = 0, +1, -1
• ν = ν𝑜 + ν 𝑙 ∆ 𝑚 𝑙
• When ∆ 𝑚𝑙 = 0 , ν = ν𝑜
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆ 𝑚𝑙 = +1, ν = ν𝑜 + ν𝑙
• When ∆ 𝑚𝑙 = -1 , ν = ν𝑜 - ν𝑙
• Frequency shift dν = ν𝑙 ( Larmour frequency)
• dν is the Zeeman frequency shift.
λ2 𝑑 ν
• In terms of wavelength d λ =
𝐶
❑ Selection Rule
• An electron cannot jump from one energy level to all
other energy levels.
• A transition of an electron between two energy levels
is possible only if certain rules called selection rules
are satisfied.
• For the vector atom model the selection rules are
• ∆ 𝑙 = ±1 , ∆ 𝑗 = 0 or ± 1 but 0 →0 is excluded
• ∆ 𝑆 = 0 , ∆𝑚𝑙 = 0 or ± 1 ∆𝑚𝑠 = 0 and
• ∆𝑚𝑗 = 0 or ± 1
 Problems

• 1. The experimental value of Bohr magneton is

9.21x10-24 and Planck’s constant h = 6.6x10-34 JS
• Calculate the specific charge of the electron.
eh
• 𝜇𝐵 =
4πm
𝑒 4𝜋 𝜇𝐵 4x 3.14x9.21x10−24
• = =
𝑚 h 6.6x10−34

𝑒
• = 1.753x 1010 C/kg
𝑚
• 2. Calculate Larmour precessional frequency of an
electron for magnetic field B=1 tesla. Find the value of
change in energy for 𝒎𝒍 =1
𝑒
• Larmour frequency ν𝐿 = B
4𝜋𝑚
1.6𝑥 10−19𝑥1
• ν𝐿 = = 1.4x 1010 / s
4𝜋𝑥 9.1𝑥 10−31
• Energy change ∆E = 𝝂𝑳 𝒎𝒍 h
• ∆E = 1.4x 1010 x 1x 6.6x10-34 = 9.24x 10-24 J
• 3. Calculate the Zeeman shift for a spectral line of
wavelength 6000 A° in a magnetic field of 4 Tesla.
Both in terms of wavelength and in frequency.
𝑒𝐵 1
• Zeeman shift = 𝑑ν= ν𝑙 = = µB B
4𝜋𝑚 ℎ
9.274𝑥4𝑥10^−24
• = 5.598x1010 m
6.626𝑥10 ^−34
λ2 𝑑 ν
•dλ= = 36 x 5.598x10-4 d λ= 0.067nm
𝐶
• 3x 108
• 4. The Zeeman component of a 5461 Å spectrum lines
are 0.417 Å when the field is 1.5 Tesla. Calculate the
value e/m.
d λ = 0.417 Å λ = 5461 Å B= 1.5 Tesla
λ2 𝑑 ν
dλ=
𝐶
𝑒B λ2 𝑒𝐵 𝑒 4 π𝐶
• 𝑑ν = dλ= = dλ
4𝜋𝑚 4𝜋𝑚𝐶 𝑚 B λ 2

𝑒
• = 1.75 x 1011 J/ kg
𝑚
• 5. Calculate the wavelength separation between the
two component lines which are observed in the normal
Zeeman effect. λ = 6000 Å
𝑒
• = 1.75 x 1011 J/ kg
𝑚

𝑒 B λ2
• dλ= x = 0.0067 nm
𝑚 4 π𝐶
• 6.Calculate the Zeeman shift observed in the normal
Zeeman effect when a spectral line of wavelength
600nm is subjected to a magnetic field of 0.5 Tesla .
𝑒
• Given = 1.76 x 1011 J/ kg
𝑚
𝑒 B λ2
•dλ= x
𝑚 4 π𝐶

• d λ = 0.252 Å
• 7.Calculate the magnetic field required to observe
normal Zeeman effect if a spectrometer can resolve
spectral lines resolved by 0.5 Å at 500nm.
𝑒 B λ2
•dλ= x
𝑚 4 π𝐶
4 π𝑚 𝐶
•B=
e λ2
• B = 4.286 Tesla
 ❑ Anomalous Zeeman effect
• An anomalous Zeeman effect is observed if the spectral
line splits into more than three lines. The effect is
observed when atom is placed in a weak magnetic field.
• The magnetic field also interacts with the electron spin
magnetic moment, so it contributes to the Zeeman effect in
many cases.
• The electron spin had not been discovered at the time of
Zeeman's original experiments.
• The term "anomalous Zeeman effect" has persisted for the
cases where spin contribute.
• With the introduction of the spin there are two
angular momentum vectors - L due to orbital motion
and S due to spin motion.
ℎ
• Orbital angular momentum L = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2𝜋
• Magnetic moment due to orbital motion of an
𝑒
electron 𝜇𝑙 = - ( 2𝑚
)𝐿
𝑒 ℎ
• 𝜇𝑙 = ( ) 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2𝑚 2𝜋
 ℎ
• Spin angular momentum S = 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
2𝜋
𝑒
• 𝜇𝑠 = - 2 x ( ) 𝑆Ԧ
2𝑚
𝑒 ℎ
• 𝜇𝑠 = 2 ( ) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
2𝑚 2𝜋
• Total angular momentum ԦJ = L + S
ℎ
• ԦJ = 𝑗(𝑗 + 1)
2𝜋
• 𝜇𝑗 is antiparallel to ԦJ
• μ = 𝜇𝑙 + 𝜇𝑠
• The angular momentum vector ԦJ is conserved.
• When the magnetic field is applied all the vectors L, S , 𝜇𝑙
, 𝜇𝑠 , μ all precess around ԦJ
• Where μ is the resultant of 𝜇𝑙 and 𝜇𝑠
• Since μ precess around ԦJ it’s component perpendicular to
ԦJ will average out to zero .
• Effective magnetic moment of the atom 𝜇𝑗 will be
represented by the component of μ along the direction
antiparallel to ԦJ ( ie along 𝜇𝑗 )
❑ Angular momentum and magnetic moment vectors

μ = 𝜇𝑙 + 𝜇𝑠

μ
• Magnitude of 𝜇𝑗 = Component of 𝜇𝑙 along
• - ԦJ + component of 𝜇𝑠 along - ԦJ

Ԧ ԦJ )
• 𝜇𝑗 = 𝜇𝑙 cos (𝐿, ԦJ ) + 𝜇𝑠 cos (𝑆,
• Substitute for 𝜇𝑙 and 𝜇𝑠

e
𝜇𝑗 =
2𝑚
𝐿 cos (𝐿, ԦJ ) + 2
e
2𝑚
𝑆Ԧ Ԧ ԦJ )} -------
cos (𝑆,
(1)
• ԦJ = 𝐿 + 𝑆Ԧ 𝑆Ԧ = ԦJ - 𝐿
• S2 = (𝐽Ԧ - 𝐿 ) 2

• S2 = 𝐽2 + 𝐿2 - 2 𝐽𝐿 cos (𝐿, 𝐽Ԧ)

𝐽2 +𝐿2 −𝑆 2 𝑗 𝑗+1 + 𝑙(𝑙+1) −𝑠(𝑠+1)

Ԧ =
cos (𝐿, 𝐽) =
2𝐽𝐿 2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑙(𝑙+1))
• ԦJ = 𝐿 + 𝑆Ԧ 𝐿 = ԦJ - 𝑆Ԧ

• L2 = (𝐽Ԧ - 𝑆Ԧ ) 2

Ԧ 𝐽)
• L2 = 𝐽2 + 𝑆2 - 2 𝐽𝑆 cos (𝑆, Ԧ

𝐽2 +𝑆 2 −𝐿2 𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑠 𝑠+1 − 𝑙(𝑙+1)

• cos (𝑆Ԧ , 𝐽)
Ԧ = =
2𝐽𝑆 2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑠(𝑠+1)
 𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑙 𝑙+1 −𝑠(𝑠+1)
Ԧ
• cos (𝐿, J )= → 2
2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑙(𝑙+1)

𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑠 𝑠+1 −𝑙(𝑙+1)

Ԧ Ԧ
• cos (𝑆, J )= →3
2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑠(𝑠+1)

ℎ
• 𝐿 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1) →4 and
2𝜋
ℎ
• 𝑠Ԧ = 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) →5
2𝜋
• Substitute equations 2, 3 and 4 and 5 in equation 1
and rearrange the equation
 e
𝜇𝑗 =
2𝑚
𝐿 cos (𝐿, ԦJ ) + 2
e
2𝑚
𝑆Ԧ Ԧ ԦJ )} (1)
cos (𝑆,

𝑒 ℎ 𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑙 𝑙+1 −𝑠(𝑠+1)

𝜇𝑗 = 𝑙 𝑙+1 +
2𝑚 2𝜋 2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑙(𝑙+1)
𝑒 ℎ 𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑠 𝑠+1 −𝑙(𝑙+1)
2x 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) →6
2𝑚 2𝜋 2 𝑗(𝑗+1) 𝑠(𝑠+1)
 𝑒ℎ 𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑙 𝑙+1 −𝑠(𝑠+1)
▪ 𝜇𝑗 = { +
4𝜋𝑚 2 𝑗(𝑗+1)
𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑠 𝑠+1 −𝑙(𝑙+1)
}→7
𝑗(𝑗+1)
𝑒ℎ
• 𝜇𝑗 = x
4𝜋𝑚
𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑙 𝑙+1 −𝑠 𝑠+1 + 2𝑗 𝑗+1 +2𝑠 𝑠+1 −2𝑙(𝑙+1)
{ ]
2 𝑗(𝑗+1)

𝑒ℎ 3𝑗 𝑗+1 −𝑙 𝑙+1 + 𝑠(𝑠+1)

𝜇𝑗 = { } →8
4𝜋𝑚 2 𝑗(𝑗+1)
 𝑒ℎ 3𝑗 𝑗+1 −𝑙 𝑙+1 +𝑠(𝑠+1)
• 𝜇𝑗 = 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) { } →9
4𝜋𝑚 2𝑗(𝑗+1)

𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑗 = x
4𝜋𝑚
2𝑗 𝑗+1 +𝑗 𝑗+1 −𝑙 𝑙+1 + 𝑠(𝑠+1)
𝑗 𝑗+1 { } → 10
2𝑗(𝑗+1)
𝑒ℎ 𝑗 𝑗+1 −𝑙 𝑙+1 +𝑠(𝑠+1)
𝜇𝑗 = 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) {1+ } → 11
4𝜋𝑚 2𝑗(𝑗+1)
𝑗 𝑗+1 −𝑙 𝑙+1 +𝑠(𝑠+1)
• The quantity {1+ } is called Lande
2𝑗(𝑗+1)
‘g’ factor.
 𝑒ℎ
• 𝜇𝑗 = g 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) → 12
4𝜋𝑚

• 𝜇𝑗 = 𝜇𝐵 g 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) → 13

𝑒 ℎ
• 𝜇𝑗 = g 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) → 14
2𝑚 2𝜋
•
ℎ
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) = J
2𝜋

𝑒
𝜇𝑗 = g J → 15
2𝑚
• If the atom is placed in a weak magnetic field the
vector J precess about B.
• Additional energy dE = 𝜇𝑗 . B
• dE = 𝜇𝑗 B cos ( 𝜇𝑗 , B )
• dE = B 𝜇𝐵 g 𝑗(𝑗 + 1) cos( 𝜇𝑗 , B )
• dE= 𝜇𝐵 B g 𝑚𝑗 → 16
• 𝜇𝐵 B is called Lorentz unit. It is a unit of energy used
to express the splitting of energy levels in a magnetic
field.
❑ Expression for Zeeman frequency shift

• Let Eo and E the energy states of an atom corresponds

to orbital quantum number 𝑙 with and without
magnetic field.
• E = Eo + dE → 17 ,
• Energy change due to Larmour precession
• dE = 𝜇𝐵 B g 𝑚𝑗
• Equation 17 becomes
• E = Eo + 𝜇𝐵 B g 𝑚𝑗 → 18
• For another energy state of an atom with orbital
quantum number 𝑙 ′
• E ′ = Eo′ + dE’
• E ′ = Eo ’+ 𝜇𝐵 B g 𝑚𝑗′ → 19
∆E E′ −𝐸
The transitional frequency ν = =
ℎ ℎ
Eo ′ − Eo 𝜇 𝐵 𝐵 ( g 𝑚𝑗 − g 𝑚𝑗 ′ )
ν= +
ℎ ℎ
𝜇𝐵 𝐵 ∆ (g 𝑚𝑗 ) 𝑒ℎ
• ν = ν𝑜 + → 20 here 𝜇𝐵 =
ℎ 4𝜋𝑚
 𝑒ℎ𝐵 ∆(g 𝑚𝑗 )
• ν = ν𝑜 + → 21
4𝜋𝑚 ℎ
𝑒𝐵∆(g 𝑚𝑗 )
• ν = ν𝑜 + → 22
4𝜋𝑚
𝑒𝐵
• = ν𝐿 is the Larmor frequency)
4𝜋𝑚
• ν = ν𝑜 + ν𝐿 ∆(g 𝑚𝑗 ) → 23
• Frequency shift d ν = ν𝐿 ∆ (g 𝑚𝑗 ) (24)
𝜇𝐵 𝐵 ∆(g 𝑚𝑗 )
• Frequency shift d ν = (25)
ℎ
❑ Anomalous Zeeman effect in Sodium 𝐷1 & 𝐷2 lines
𝐠𝐦𝐣

𝐃𝟏 𝐃𝟐
❑ Normal and Anomalous Zeeman effect