Unit-4

STATIC RELAYS AND

NUMERICAL PROTECTION
 Syllabus
• Static relays – Phase, Amplitude Comparators

• Synthesis of various relays using Static comparators

• Block diagram of Numerical relays- Overcurrent

protection, transformer differential protection, distant
protection of transmission lines.

CO4 :Elucidate the importance of numerical and static relays in power

system
 Static Relays
• The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving
mechanical parts in it

• Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid state relay

has longer life-span, decreased noise when operates and faster
respond speed

• The relay which do not use moving parts and the solid state
electronic components such as diodes, transistors etc are called
static relays.
STATIC RELAYS-BLOCK DIAGRAM
The four basic elements of a static relay are:
• Input element which is a rectifier or mixing circuit
such as op-amp adder, etc
• Measuring element
• Single input device
• Two input device
• Multi-input device
• Output element which is an amplifier
• Feed element which provides d.c supply to the
various elements.
 INPUT ELEMENT

• An electronic circuit such as rectifier is required as

an input element to get the input signal in a
convenient form before applying it to a measuring
element.

• Some mixing circuits such as op-amp adder may also

be required as an input element to sum the input
signals in a convenient form.
 MEASURING ELEMENT

• Measuring element is called as the heart of the static

relay.

• It compares the output of an input element with a

set of value and decides the signal to be applied to
the output element which ultimately drives the
tripping circuit.
Measuring element can be classified as,
• Single input device
• Two input device
• Multi-input device

Depending on the protection and control schemes, the

single input devices are further classified as,
• Noncritical repeat function
• Critical measuring function
• Definite or fixed time function
• Input dependent time function
 Noncritical repeat function

Input R is either 0 or higher than Marginal level

Critical measuring function

ON-OFF controller- activates when the

input level reaches the critical value
decided by protection scheme

R> critical value (P) –it operates

Definite or fixed time function - fixed delay

between input and output

Input dependent time function

T=f(Rn) – n is negative, input increases
operating time decreases
 OUTPUT ELEMENT
• Signals from the measuring element are required to be
amplified before applying to the tripping circuit.

• Sometimes it not only amplifies the signals but

multiplies them or combines them with other signals to
delay them.

• It may take the form of auxiliary relays or contactors.

• Also the form of a bistable or monostable multivibrator

circuit and if required modulated by logic circuits like
AND, OR, NOR or timing elements.
 Static Relay Electromagnetic Relay

A static relay uses different solid-state

An electromagnetic relay uses an
semiconductor devices like MOSFETs,
electromagnet to achieve the
transistors, SCRs, and many more to
switching function.
achieve the function of switching.

An alternate name for this

An alternate name for this static relay
electromagnetic relay is an
is the solid-state relay.
electromechanical relay.

This relay works on the electrical & This relay works on the
optical semiconductor properties. electromagnetic induction principle.

The static relay includes different

The electromagnetic relay includes
components like a semiconductor
different components like an
switching device, a set of i/p &
Electromagnet, Moving armature &
switching terminals, and an
set of i/p & switching terminals.
optocoupler.
 Static Relay
This relay doesn’t have any moving
parts.
It does not generate switching noise.
It consumes extremely less power than
It consumes more power
in mW.
These relays do not need a substitute
for contact terminals.
This relay is installed at any location
and in any place.
These relays have a compact size.
These are highly accurate.
These are very fast.
These are costlier.
Electromagnetic Relay
This relay includes moving parts.
It generates switching noise.
These relays need the substitute of
contact terminals.
This relay is installed always in a
straight position & at any place away
from the magnetic fields.
These relays have a large size.
These are less accurate.
These are slow.
These are not costlier.
 Static Relay Types

There are different types of static relays available which

are discussed below.
• Electronic relays.
• Transductor relays.
• Transistor relays.
• Rectifier bridge relays.
• Gauss effect relays.
Comparators

16
Amplitude Comparators

17
Rectifier Bridge Comparator

18
Integrating Amplitude Comparator

19
20
 Unit-4
Phase Comparator

Electronic relays
• Phase comparison technique is the most widely used
technique for all practical directional, distance, differential
and carrier relays.

• In a phase comparator, the operation of the relay takes place

when the phase relation between two inputs S1 and
S2 varies within certain specified limits.

• The function, as defined by the boundary of marginal

operation, is represented by two straight lines from the
origin of the complex plane.
• Mathematically, the condition of operation is given as
– α1 ≤ θ ≤ α2

• Where, θ is the angle by which S1 lags behind S2.

• If α1 = α2 = 90° the comparator is called the cosine

comparator and

• If α1 = 0 and α2 = 180°, it is called the sine comparator.

 Coincidence Type Phase Comparators
• Let us consider two sinusoidal signals S1 and S2. Their period of coincidence
depends upon their phase difference.

• It can be seen that the period of coincidence of two sinusoidal signals S 1 and S2 is
= (180° – θ) where 0 is the phase angle between S1 and S2.
• It means if the operation is desired for a phase angle θ less

than 90°, then coincidence period should be greater than 90°.

• Thus, the criterions for operation becomes – 90° ≤ θ ≤ 90°.

• By measuring the period of coincidence, it is possible to design

the circuit to give an output a YES or a NO depending upon

the phase relation of the input signals.

 Sine type Comparator

The phase angle between the two inputs can be obtained as angle
(P/Q), then the sine type phase comparator as follows
Generally the reference input selected as reference hence the
phase is 00 hence it is in position is along 00 i.e. Positive x-axis
direction
 Cosine type Comparator

Due to cosine nature of the inputs, the trip law changes as

 Spikes and Block Coincidence Techniques in Phase Comparator
In such a comparator, one of the inputs is converted to square wave and the other into
a pulse of short duration at the instant of its zero crossing, peak value or at any angle
(preferably at the instant of its peak value). The squared and spike signals are fed
through an AND gate.

If these two signals coincide at any

time, the output then only would be
available from the AND gate.
• In this method, one of the two input signals is converted into a square
wave and the other is converted into a spike during its peak.

• Square wave and spike are given to an AND gate whose output is 1
when both square wave and spike are coinciding.

• Coincidence will happen only when the angle between the input signals
are less than 900 which indicates a fault.

• Output of AND gate is used to trip the C.B.

Coincidence principles in phase Comparator
Duality in Comparators
Duality theorem states that the two signals obtained by adding and

subtracting the inputs of the comparator are suitable as the inputs to

its dual. When such signals are applied to its dual then the output

remains unchanged
 Graphical Representation of principles of duality

ത
• Let 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄ത be the inputs to an amplitude comparator
such that 𝑃ത > 𝑄ത hence the comparator output trips.

• If ϕ<900 between them, the output of phase comparator

trips
Consider the inputs 𝑅ത 1 and 𝑅2 to a phase comparator such that ϕ is
less than 900 (ϕ<900). Generate the signals 𝑅ത 1 + 𝑅2 and 𝑅ത 1 - 𝑅2

The Generated signals 𝑇ത 1 and 𝑇2 applied to amplitude comparators are

such that 𝑇ത 1 > 𝑇2 , then the output trips
Hybrid Comparators
 Unit-4

STATIC RELAYS AND

NUMERICAL PROTECTION
 Syllabus
• Static Overcurrent protection, transformer differential

protection, distant protection of transmission lines.

 Static Time Current Relays

• The current at which the level detector trips is called Threshold

current denoted as Ithershold . Thus for an over current relay,
 Static Time Current Characteristics
The time current characteristics is inverse type of characteristics and given by the expression
• The secondaries of line C.Ts are connected to tie summation circuit. The
output of summation C.T is given to the input C.T. The input C.T. is
called auxiliary C.T which has taps on the primary for selecting the
required pickup and current range.

• Then the output of auxiliary C.T is rectified and smoothened. It is then

applied to overload level detector and RC timing circuit. When the
voltage across the timing capacitor reaches to a critical value then it
triggers the level detector The output of the level detector is amplified as
per the requirement and given to the tripping circuit.

• This operates the output device. The charging of capacitor in a timing

circuit is achieved by a voltage derived from CT current. This voltage is
obtained across a nonlinear resistor by passing rectified current through
it. The proper selection of nonlinear resistor and RC timing circuit allows
obtaining the desired shape of time current characteristics of the state
relay.
Static Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
• The auxiliary transformer gives output voltage proportional to the fault
current. The main circuit is protected from the voltage surges by using
R1C1 circuit at the input. This is called surge protector.
• The output voltage from the transformer is then rectified and smoothened
using capacitor filter C2.
• The level of this voltage is compared with the voltage level decided by
zener diode ZD1.
• This zener limits the rectified voltage to a safe value through the fault
current is very high.
• Potentiometer P is compared with the breakdown voltage of another
zener diode ZD2.
• When the rectified voltage is greater than ZD2, then transistor Q1
conducts.
• This increases drop across R2 due to which Q2 conducts.

• This energizes the trip coil Tc of the relay.

• When the trip coil opens, develop high reverse voltage (back emf).

• To protect Q2 from such a high emf, a diode D is connected across

the trip coil.

• With the help of potentiometer P different pick up values can be

determined.
Directional Static Overcurrent Relay

Let Ip is the current setting magnitude

 Static Differential Relay

• In normal conditions, the two quantities balance each other and the
comparator output is zero and the relay is inoperative.

• For fault conditions, the comparator sense the phase difference between the
quantities and produce the output.

• This is amplified and given to the trip circuit which operates the relay.
• Let n0 and nr be the number of turns of operating and restraining coils
respectively. Then the relay operates when

K1 n0 I0 > K2 nr Ir + K’

• Where K1 and K2 are design constants while K’ is the spring control

torque
 Static Distance Relay

• In the distance relay, the operation is dependent on the ratio of the voltage
and current, which is expressed intends of impedance.

• The relay operates when the ratio V/I i.e. impedance is less than a
predetermined value.

• The distance relays include impedance, reactance and admittance relays.

• The line voltage VL and line current IL are given as the inputs to the two
measuring circuits. The circuits produce the outputs S1 and S2 depending
upon their characteristics. Thus,

S1 = K1VL+K2IL

S2=K3VL+K4IL

• where K1 ,K2, K3 and K4 are to be selected according to the requirement

of the characteristics.

• Now depending upon whether the comparator is amplitude or phase

comparator and the constants K1 to K4, the various characteristics of the
distance relay can be obtained.
 Microprocessor based Relay

Relay logic : relay can be ON or OFF i.e. it has two stable states.

Similarly output of a logic function is ON i.e. high or OFF i.e. low.

The three basic logic functions are: AND, OR and NOT functions.

All these functions can be achieved using transistors also. It is called transistor-
transistor logic (ML).
• The output of line CT is given to the input receiver block where signal is
processed. The signal processing includes surge protector, rectifier, smoothening
filters, auxiliary CT etc. depending upon the requirement. This signal is an analog
signal.

• The A/D converter converts this to a digital signal which is accepted by the
microprocessor. The microprocessor is a decision making block.

• The digital signal received is compared with the reference to generate the proper
tripping signal. This is a digital signal which is converted to analog again to
operate the tripping coil. This is achieved by the D/A converter.

• The data logger captures the data and feeds it to the microprocessor when there is
a request from the microprocessor. The information can be displayed with a
proper display device by taking signal from the microprocessor.