I

Unit-Light
Chapter- Reflection of Light

Reflection: The phenomenon of returning of light into the same medium after striking
on the surface of the other medium is called the reflection of light.
Laws of Reflection
1. The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and reflected ray all
lie in the same phase plane and at the
Normal
same point. :N
t1. The angle of incidence (i) is always
A
equal to the angle of reflection R
Li=Lr
Reflecting Surface 0

These two experimental observations are called "laws of~ ~ .

Regular and Diffuse Reflection:If the reflection ~ ~ ~lace from smooth,

highly, polished surface (or a mirror), sue~ . : ,ett7ino;n is said to be a "regular
refle.ction". ~ ·-~

If the reflection takes place from a .rou} or 'IQ: -· lar surface called "diffuse or
..!~
irregular
reflection.

(b) Irregular renection

(a) Regular reflection

f the image formed by a plane mirror:

It is virtual in nature.
11. It is of the same size as that of the object.
111. The image formed is erect.
1v. The image formed is laterally inverted.
*** the lateral inversion means that the right side of the object appears as the left side
of the image and vice-versa.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Generally, two types of spherical mirror:

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 1, Concave sphe rical mirror: A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface
.
1s towards the centre of the sphere of which the mirror a part is called
concave spherical mirror.
Convex Spherical mirror: A spherical mirror,
11, whose reflecting surface is
away from the centre of the sphere of whi
ch the mirror fonns a part is
called · convex
spherical mirror.
,/~~erh.
IC ..,.,.,s ing CQ!lve.x
:i= g
CQJ
ren eve
ng
su . AB B

1. Centre of Curvature: The centre of

the sphere, ~ ic~ ,s; Airror fonns a
part, is called the centre of curvature of the
mirr&, Jc ~
2. Radius of curvature: The radius of
the ~~-~ ich the mirror fonns a
part, is called the radius of curvature o lfie mi~
,-PC = R. ·
3. Principal Focus: The point at whl ch a: ~
w beam of light parallel to its
principOI axis, when incide~ ~~ iQW
after _reflection from th~ mirror,
meets or appears the come fr~ s called the prmctpal focus·of the mtrror.

mirror ·

§t
r"- ~19 ::i~
X

___ _
Principal axis
C
Focus

___;__ ___,,,,_: .....

:
. (

(a) l+- t ---+i

(Focal length)

Relation between f and R

To prove that f= R
Proof: Consider a concave mirror of small apertur
2
e,
whose pole , focal and centre of curvature are poin
ts P,
F and C respectively.

L.OAC = L.QAC =0
L.PCA =0

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

~-
 3
PF= f andPC=R
From point A, drop AN l PC. then in t1CNA

AN
tan0 = - ...............(i)
CN
Since Aperture of the mirror is small, then
CN=CP
And OA II CP LOAQ = 20

In M'NA
(ll..)
tan20 =AN
-......................
FP
For small aperture
AN
From eq (i) 0= -
CP
From eq (ii) 20=A N
FP

:;=2~~'?
2.FP=A B

-01§ .
Mirror Forrn ula:~ ~ ula is a relation between the distance of the

object (u), t~ dJC of the image (v) and the focal length (t) of the spherical

mirror. ~ ~
e spherical
Let ~ ° ' ~n C be pole, focus and centre of curvature of a concav
beyond C, the
~ or. ~uppf e that an object AB place on the principal axis at a point
cent~ urvature of the concave mirror. The image formed between CP.
Now, M'B' C' and MBC are similar

Therefore,
A'B' A'C
AB = AC ... .. .......... (i)
MBP and M 'B'P are similar

A'B' A'P
- = -............. ... (ii)
AB AP
From eq(i) and eq(ii)
Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010
 A'C A'P
-==-
AC AP
CP-A'P _ A'P
AP-CP AP

-2/+v = -v
-u+2f -u
-2uf +uv=-uv +2vf
2uv =2uf + 2vf

Linear Magnification:The:a:o:of the size of the imag~ f~..-}~ erical

mirror to the size of the object is calloo linear magnifi~~ ~denoted by m.

s1zeofimalJ! ~ "\,,~

And

~~
REFRX'C~ ~OF LIGHT
Refraction: The phenomeiip~ ange in path of light as it goes from one medium
to another is called re~ ~ V
Laws of Refracti~ ~el menon of refraction takes place according to the
following twe'¾U-
~ ~}1aw: The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the
, ~oint of incidence and the refracted ray - all lie in the same plane.
-4_ ' 21' Snell's Law (second law): The ratio of the sine of the angle of
V incidence to the sine of the angle of [incident :
refraction is constant for the two given I ray 1
I Rarer
media. I medium
1

------ -r I Denser
1rnectiiim - -
- - - - - - -t- - - - - - - - -
I
- - - - - - - - Rerradec:1- - -
ray

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 983 71400 l 0

- 5

g sini
an = . =cons!.
s1nr
Where n = refracting index of the medium.
g
And a n means, refractive index of glass w.r. to air.
** The value of refractive index of a medium depends upon
1. The nature of the paired medium.
11. The wavelength of the light.

= velocityofightinvaa1um = c ~~> \
gn
a velocityofightinmedum v : V
~
Few important relation:
gn = S101
a •
s1nr

g sini g

· aDg .gn a=

For three medium (air, water, glass}' -. ."

.~~~
~
_

,.e,-:wn~ a- I
• **Leaming tips A,_➔~~ ,•' •ting ways) . . . .

ect lymg
Real and Appar(°t De? ~ cordmg to the refraction, the depth of an obJ

inside an op~jp1111Y. : s~ dium appears to be less than its real depth.

~~aii~~ allw = realdepth

apparantdepth
eye
I A' N C

- - rar er(t,' 3)
I
rI X
Air (a)
y
A

I
N
De nse r
Wa ter (b) me dium( f'•;

l
Contact: Unique Inst. Mob : 983714001 0
 Critical angle: The critical angle for a pair of media may be defined
as the angle of
incidence in the denser medium, for which the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium
is 90°.

sine
glla= sin
. 900

gna = sine

1
allg =
sine

Total Internal Reflection:It may be defined as the

I
I
phenomenon of reflection of light that takes place, when a ~ I

:
ray of light traveling in a denser medium to the rarer med\~ x• jv
:::.:~ ~~:: ::c;: ~:e is greater t~an the critical~ i •• a'-i:";;;;;;;;;;;;'
5
1. Brilliance of diamonds: D1arnond/ 4 ~mpo,rtant f;g. 'l•l•••· Totru ;n1emru ,eflectlon.
constituent of jewellery _because of its shinmg cha~ teristics. This can
be explained
on t hb
e as1s.f ~-- --~ ~
o total internal retlectioh. R'e~ ctive index of diamond is 2.5 . Therefore,
its critical angle C is given b& ~ \

· in C
· = - = - 1 = 0.4
n 2.5
4
~~ C = sin- 1 (0.4) = 23°36'
This value is qui~ as compared to other medii. Thus, probability of TIR to take
place increase-"mar:tifold id case of a diamond.
~~,~

2. Mirage:~ ~ two types of mirage, one observed in hot region

s and the other
.s-t~
).lpghly cold regions.
(a).\ lnfer:ior mirage: Person traveling through hot deserts,
~
sometimes, sees the presence of water at a distant place
.,,, ~
E • ~ ~

which is actually an optical illusion only. The phenomena is

'-
.... ' ' ~
//

'
' '
termed as inferior mirage. ' ' '~

Surface of earth in deserts is very hot. So air in the lower

'---..-'-,,'\
''
.........,
....,t,
11 •
' ", u'
'~~ ~
regions of atmosphere is hot as compared to that in higher
regions. Therefore, density of air in the lower regions is
Fig . 7(a).17. Inferior mirage.
~
lesser than that in the higher regions. If we consider the atmosphere
to be composed
of layers of air, one above the other, a beam of light starting from
(a tree) and
I

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

V traveling downward finds itself going from denser to rarer medium . Therefore, its
7

angle of incidence at consecutive layers goes on increasing gradually till it surpasses

the critical value and is reflected back due to TIR. A virtual image of the object is
seen by eye at E. Due to the disturbance of air, the mirage is wavy in nature, thus,
giving an illusion for the presence of water which is actually not there.
2. Superior mirage or looming: In cold region, the
temperature of air in lower region is smaller than that of
,,
upper region. So density of air in lower region is greater than ,
,,
I

that of upper region. A beam of light starting from an o b j e c t ~ ~

S (say a ship) on the surface finds itselftravelin~ fr~m denser ~-~,@£%::::~
to rarer medium. Therefore, its angle of mc1dence at Fig. 7(a).1B. superior mirage.

consecutive layers of air goes on increasing, gradually , till it ~

reaches the critical value. Then rays gets reflected back
· the eye the rays appear to .come f1rom S' •~
On entermg .s · g an
dei
u'o~ al
reflection.
. impression
. that
" Y'. ..

the ship is floating in air which is again an o~ iim. ·on. his effect ts called

superior mirage or looming. t4''_ ~

SPHERICAL REF~ ~ URFACE

The portion of a refracting medium, -~ : urface fonns the part of a sphere,

is called spherical refracting& fThce. The ,.:f'herical refracting surfaces are of two
types. ~ -,q
(a) Convex spheric-'h, ref~ l n surface.
(b) Conca~e fe ,.fr.:icting surface.
5, _ _ __ _ 5...-----
I/DENSER RARER , ,r DENSER
RARER
MEDIUM /-" I MEDIUM MEDIUM : MEDIUM

j/: I
J{ ,, .✓ :/- /. JI I
·P I C
x/ Jt'
: /
5 ' s
~ R-~ ~R--t
(CONVE:X REFRACTING SURFACE) (CONCAVE REFRACTING SURFACE)
( (l,) c bJ

REFRACTION AT CONVEX SPHERICAL SURFACE

Consider a convex spherical refracting surface whose refractive index with respect to

air allg and radius of curvature be R. Suppose object placed in rarer medium at point O
and after refraction real image formed at point I.

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

OP = - U, PI = + V
CP=+R
LAOP=a
Let LAIN= /3
0
LACN=y

From the point A, drop AN ..L PC

S'
From MOC
i =a+ y........................ (ext. angle prop.) .......(i)
From MCI

Or
r=r+P ~

If Li and Lr are very small thansini = i sinr = r ~

,ng-~
l =r • (ang)
c~
... .. .. _, c···)
____,1 .................. Ill
. .......

. v
a= dn a= AN
, ~ ON
For small aperture "\.. p =t an /J = AN
..,. ) NJ
~ ~ =tan r = AN
t,
· NC

a + Y =(y - /J) (allg)

tan a + tan r = (tan r - tan /3) . (ang)
AN AN AN AN
ON+ NC= (NC - NI )(ang)

1 1 1 1 N=P for small

- - + - = (- - - ). (ang) aperture
u R R V
ON=-u
NI= + v
1 1 1 NC=+R
(ang)- - - = [(allg)- 1] -
V u R
n 1 (n-1)
FOR EASY LEARNING ---=
V u R

REFRACTION AT CONCAVE SPHERICAL SURF ACE

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 9
Consider a concave spherical refracting surface whose refractive surface whose
refractive index w.r.t. air 0 ng and radius of curvature be R. Suppose object placed in
rarer medium at point O and after refraction real image formed at point I.
In MOC, ....,-- --:;:;;---:~ I"'
r=i+a 5
72,2.
i= r-a .......... .................... .(i) ii,,
y.
In ~AIC,

r=/J+r 0
r =.y - /3 .............................. (ii)
g sini
an =-.-
smr
For small aperture sini =i, S'
sinr=r <'_ Y
a,{J,yare very small then i ='·:·····=·"··•·"·······(ii,) ~~
a=tana= ON=-=;; ~
/J=Wl/J=! =~ A,.~

r=mnr=~= ~ C ,'r
From eq (iii) a- r =(/3- y) . .ng
mna-mnr~ ~·r) .• n'
AN - ' =( - , ).ang
-u - R -v -R
-~ - . l + ~)- ng
0

cr
~ = (.;, -1)
u R

- - -1=(n-1)
,1~
For Easy lea nm --
v u R

~ ns at<ey Formula: The lens maker's formula relates the focal length of a lens
~ ctive index of its material and the radii of curvature of its two surfaces. The
formula is used to manufacture a lens of particular focal length from the glass of
given refractive index. For this, reason, it is called lens maker's formula. .

---.. -· - ----·--
I I '

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 98371400 IO

 l() \

Consider a convex lens made of material of refractive index w.r.t. air is to be 0 n8. \

Let p_ and p be the poles. The centres of curvature are R1 and R2, the radii of
1 2
curvature of the two surfaces XP1 Y and XP2Y- respectively.
Suppose that O is a point object placed on the principal axis of the lens. The real

image formed at l1. then

n8 1 Cn 8 - 1) .
- v' - -u =..c,:____:...
0

R,
••••••••• • •••••••••• ••( 1)

Image r Works for the surface XP2 Y as an object then the new real image formed at I.
In this case light ray passes through lens to air.
n 1 (n-1)
---=
V U

Or
v v' R2

Or
~-·:-'= ~
n8C-- (a[18~
_!__ ~~~ ) ..
Or 0
.....................(11)
V R?
y -
Adding eq (i) and eq(ii)

•• I. The lens maker) : ~ i,i?ced for a convex ;ens i: applicable to both the
convex and the conc~ e~
** 2. The ,-<...
ive.
fo~ l l~ \ a convex lens is taken +ive and that of a
-.,. .~ . l
concave ens as -

: ! ; : , ~X ens, R1 = +ive, R2 = -ive

r a Y cave lens, R1 = -ive , R2 = +ive
Dependence upon Refractive Index
ens be immersed in a liquid whose refractive index is affected. So focal length
is also effected.
Three important conditions are:
i. If an' <an g
8
I I
-=(an 1 -l)[- - -1]
f an R, R2

then convex lens works as a convex lens but the focal length increases.
ii. If a
nl > a n g

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob : 9837140010

 11
1 ng I 1
-=(~-1)[- --]
f an RI R2
th en convex lens works as a concave lens and concave lens works as a convex lens.
iii. If . nI = ng
a a

~=0, f=oo

then the focal length of the lens becomes infinite. Now the lens will behave just like a
plane transparent plate and will becomes invisible.
Derive Lens Equation: (Convex lens)
Consider that an object AB is placed at a point beyond F on the. p~
& -1~ ~s o a
concave lens. Its real image A'B' will be formed on the other s~ f~ J ct as .
shown in ..~ " \
r
figure.
. Ac-= -LL
e c. A' :=..-t-V
cf= f
Al
A F

I •- -I- I

" ' - ~ AB ..........................(i)

''-tA' A'B'
In !lCEF s•nf~~
~~ CF= CE CE=AB
A'F A'B'
CF AB
A'F = A'B' .......... ...............(ii)
From eq(i) and eq(ii)
CA CF
-=-
CA' A'F
u f
--=--
V V-j
-uv+uf =vf
1 1 l
Dividing by uvf --+-=-
! V U

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 1 1 1
-= ---
! V U

Linear Magnification: The ratio of the size of the

image _formed_by a lens to the size
of the object is called linear magnification . It is deno
ted by (m).
I V
m= -=-
0 u
Image formed by a convex lens: Check you
r rough register. (I explained on
board).

Po~ er _or Lens: The ability of a lens, to converge

'or diverge the rays of lig~ : ident
on _it, 1s calt~d the power of the lens. "The pow
er of a lens is measur~ s. te
reciprocal of its focal length in metre.
~ 1/
~~
1
P= /(m )
The unit of power is Dioptre (D)
~~
For concave lens (-D)
Derive focal length formula when - Oi~ en,
s placed in contact
Consider that two thin lenses L1 and L2of ~ caj leng
pis f1and fi are placed in contact
with each other. ~
~ '\: _ ~ ~"'
L1 L2.

0
--------------
r I'

..- -- -u -- -- ~- -- -v '-- -- ~
Suppose I~ ~ ject O lies on the principal axis of the two lenses. For
the lens
L1 , rSa ~age form ed at r . then the lens formula is

~)' -1 -- -1'- -1 ....... ....... ...... ....... .( l")

f. V U
r image works for second lens L2 as a virtual image then the final real imag
e formed
at I.

Now again _l = .!_ - ~ .......... ...................( ii)

f2 V V

Adding eq (i) and eq(ii)

1 1 I 1
-+ -= ---
!. f2 V U

Suppose the combined focal length of lenses is F, then

Contact: Unique lnst. Mob : 98371 40010
 1 1 1
-=-+-
F fa h

·• • 1. When two lenses are placed in contact, then image produced by first lens acts as
the object for the second lens, which further produces image of this. If m1and m2 are
magnification produced by the first and the second lens respectively, then total
magnification produced by the combination is given by
. m =711i X11fi . ··

L" '\,,
2. Two lenses may also be comtn•; by :lacin: then at a finite d i s t a n ~ ~

f=f,+f,-f,~ .
Where x = distance between two lenses. ,<If~~

~'?
· ~

~~
~cry

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 14 ,

Dispersion: Prism \
. fi acting medium bound by two plane
Prism: A prism is the portion of transparent re r
surfaces meeting each other along a straight
A
edge.
Consider that a ray of light PQ is incident on
the refracting face AB of the prism at point Q.
PQ is the incident ray, QR is the refracting
ray, and the RS be a emergent ray.
s
LPQ N = i, LRQ O = 'i LOR Q = r2 ,
LNR S =i', LKIR = 8 (angle of dispersion)
' B
- y
___,..-- C

In t::,.QOR
r. + r. - I 80 .
~
1
From eq (i) and:(:;Q (JR = sci' ................. ~
r, + r, = l 8o' -(180 "
r.+r.
I
c~
2 = LA........ -~... ...... ••.•· ...
..(111)
In t::,.TQR,

. Ext:\n~ a i-r. +i'-r .

. ' I 2
~~ 4,a--(; +r )-(r1 +r2 ) ••••••• •• (zv)
-
For minimm~ g~ of d~ iation i = i' , 'i =r2
then from ,€< iii) ~ ~ 2r = LA
LA
r =2- ... ...... .... ... ... ....()
V

Lo =2i- 2r
Lo= 2i-A

i = (Lo +LA )
2

sin (o +LA )
Refractive index n= --~ 2~- sini
n=-
. A smr
sm-
2

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 98371 400IO

 15
For a small angle of prism
t.o y
. <0 +LA) (o +LA)
sm--~ - - - ~ 0
2

2 - 2 ~
. A A ~ 50
sm-= - 0
2 2 u.
0
w40
..J
------.J:--
li'm
n= (o +LA)/2 \!) I

~ 3 oL1Lo--.c1-2o_j..30~40::-1:!s~o~6~o~1~0~a~o-
. --x
-A/2 0
- AN6LE.OFINC!OENCE c,
n.A=o+ LA
o=(n-l )A

Mini~u ~ deviation position: If the angle of incidence increased ~adual~ an.gle

of deviation first decrease, attains a minimum value and then aga1~~ ta ~ sti g

when angle of deviation is minimum, the prism is said to be in mt . dev,fion

position. ✓ '-.
.- -{ Dedation of
Dispersion: If a beam of white light is made to /\,, ,.,, ,,-, \_ re-cl light
,,,. .
fall on one face of a prism, the light emerging
from the other face of the prism consists of \

seven colours namely violet, indigo blue, greec !.,--- ---·· - ~ ·

yellow, orange and red. A , ,\ngular
· ~ ~prea.d .
!-M'-r« ·n
The seven constituent colors can be,.,.re~ " " ' .
VIBGYOR. This phenomenon of ~ of white light into its constituent colors

is called dispersion of light.,L : ~

Cause of dispersion: Th)a.' diffe~ t ) olors of light are due to different wavelength.
The wavelength of vi9t t ligJi ·s~ ler than that of red light.

the refracts· ~~ fo e-violet and red lights i.e. n n, ; n,

For ~ 1im. YE\ w light is called mean light.

Afg~la~ Tu~rsion_: ~he angular dispersion for any ~o col~rs may be defined as
th~ ifference m ciev1at1ons s11ffereci hv the two colors m nassmg through the prism.

Let nv and nR be the refractive indices of the material of

the prism for violet and red rays.
If A is the angle of prism, then
ov=A(nv - 1)..................( i)
OR = A(nR-1) ......... ..................(ii)

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 ~
16
Subtracting eq. (ii) from eq. (i)
§v -DR =A(nv -nR)
The equation gives the angular dispersion for violet and red rays.
Dispersive Power: The dispersive power of a material for any two colors may be
defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for these two colors to the deviation
suffered by mean light. It is denoted by OJ.

0) = ov-OR
___:.____.a;_

oy
Where ny is the refractive index of mean light.

0)
(nv -nR)A
= ----'---'-'---
(ny - l)A

OJ= (nv -nR)

Material of the prism for violet and red rays. ~ ~

If A is the angle of prism, t~n I(_ '\,
Ov - A(nv -1) ......... --~ -- L~
OR = A(nR -1) ..~.-~ ...... '11
Subtracting equation (ii) from equatioJ11i ·. .
[ov-OR =A(~ ~R~
The equation gives the angula~ spersio~ r violet and the rays.

. . ~ ~ PEJ SIVE POWER .

The d1spers1~e po~er~ ma~Vor any two colour~ ~ay be defined as the ratio of
the angular d1sper ron~~~ two colours to the dev1at1on suffered by mean light. It
is denoted b:>_:~ ~
OJ = ov-OR
--'--___.a;_

oy
refraction index of mean light. oY=(ny - l)A
(nv -nR)A
O J = - -~ -
(ny -l)A
[w = (nv - nR)]
(ny - I)
CHROMATIC ABERRATION IN LENSES
when a beam of white light traveling parallel to the principal axis is incident on a lens,
it splits into the constituent colours due to its prismatic action. The various colours
come to focus at different points on the principal axis.
l l 1
- = (n-1)(- - - ]
f R, R2
Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010
 17
rial, which in tum
The focal length depends upon the refractive index of the mate
WHI TE RA)I S

w- --- --~
/,-
depends upon the colour of light.
to focus at a .si~ Ror t
This inability of a lens to bring the light of different colours
is called axial or longitudinal chromatic aberration.
AV
Axial chromatic aberration= JR - fv ~~
Expression for axial chromatic a~~
Let the mean refraction index of the material of the ~
~d the mean focal-

/y ~ -R, .
Similarly, for red and violet lights, we get ..
I ~- 1
- =,~ -1) ~- - - ]................... ..(11)
JR , _:"~, ( R2
1'~
/4_"\
n
f(.~)
. -~- 1
__I] ................... ..(iii)
R1 R2
From equation (iii) an~~equ~ ~n (iY
~ b 1 I I

c r
...L. --= (nv -nR )[-- -]
Jv JR R, R2
I]

~--~
~ ' _I __I= (nv -nR> (ny- l)[_!_ __
~~ f,, JR (ny -1) R1 R2

I I I
--- =m x - · from equation (i)
f,, JR [y
JR - f,, ·= aJ X _I
f,,JR [y
of fv fa. Then, we
Since fv, fa and fy differ only slightly, we can substitute fy in place
have
fR - f,, =a>X - 1
~2 Jy
f R- /, =a> xfy
aberration in the
Note :- smaller the focal length of a lens, smaller is the chromatic
lens.

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 Achromatism

Two lenses of suitable materials and focal lengths may be combined to remove
chromatic aberration. Such a combination of two lenses is called an achromatic
combination or an achromat. The condition, the two lenses have to satisfy so as to
form an achromatic combination, is called condition of achromatism.
Consider two thin lenses L and L' of materials of dispersive power w and w'
respectively placed in conta~t with each other. Their refracti~e indices for violet, red
and yellow rays are respectively nv• nR• ny and n'v' n'R' n'y • If for these rays
_ /:
the focal

length of the first lens are respectively J,,,JR,Jy and the focal lengt~ s Ft~ co) d

lens are J'v,J'R,f\, then for the first lens, we have ~ , Y

I 1 l
J., - JR ={J)X Jy.......... ........... ,i
For second lens 1 l l .

Addmg equat1on(1) and (ii)

().+;JU. +if~
If the focal lengths of this lens-combin~oID'f~ q}tfolet and the red be
1·,
J,, and JR
respect then ~

~
~ :~-.:~ JR J'R FR

"'-'1: .
I I OJ OJ'

F, - F, f', ~ J/
But the ac~ oma~!!l.of the lens combmatlon to be achromatic. F;, = FR
y OJ OJ'
-+-=0
Jy J'y
OJ OJ'
-=--
Jy J'y
The relationship shows the achromatism.
(i) The two lenses always be a different in nature.

(ii) The two lenses cannot be of the same material

* Generally two materials are taken flint glass (concave) and crown glass
(convex).

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 19
EMISSION SPECTRA
The light emitted by a source of light and resolved into its constituent wavelengths is
called emissiqn spectrum.

Emission spectra are of the following three types:

(i) Continuous emission spectrum:- A continuous emission spectrum is one,
which cov~rs a wide range of wavelengths without any gap or
discontinuity. The solar spectrum is an example of a continuous spectrum.
In general, solids and liquids emit continuous spectra.
(ii) Line emission spectrum:- A line emission spectrum
consists of bright lines separated from each other by dark ~pac s. . ~' )
The spectra emitted by hydrogen, helium, mercury, so \ ,~ JcruVetc
are line spectra. ~ o/
(iii) Band emission spectrum:-A band emission spee:~t1um ~ one which
consists of a number of bright bands of li~~1 arp at 0 · e end. Band
spectra are emitted by 0 2 ,N2 ,C02 ,NH~ ,G ~ c. ·
ABSORPTION SPE . ~ ~
when light from a source emitting full spe~ : p~ ed through a substance (a
solid are liquid in vapour state or a gas)~t l ~ ~nes(or bands) appearing in the
positions occupied by the bright l~~j~ the emission spectrum of the
substance constitute the absorption ~~f the substance. · ·

When light from a source ~ ing ful~ ectrum is passed through lamp black or
platinwn black,the wh~l~ O, jl\nt light is absorbed and there is no transmitted
light. It is called genef1l_absorptiof i.
Some substanceA ~selective wavelengths, while the others absorb a few
bands of wa ~~ ansmit the all other remaining wavelengths of light. Such
an ab~ ~ lepned as selective absorption. Accordingly, the absorption spectra
are tfsuat t ~ following two types:
~ Q)\ ;{sorption line spectrum
(iiV Absorption band spectrum
IMPURE SPECTRUM
A spectrum, in which the constituent co lours
of the various rays of light overlap each
other and the various colours are not
distinctly visible, is called and impure
spectrum.
*It is possible to make various colours
occupy distinct and separate positions on the scrum.
"Pure spectrum"
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 ,.,v

have sharp boundaries and are

.
A spectrum m h'1ch the constituent colours
w
distinctly visible is called the pure spectrum.
Conditions for obtaining pure spectrum
1. The source of light in the form of a
A

narrow slit should be used.

2. A convex lens should be used to
make the beam of light parallel. .
3. The prism should be placed in the ~,
-S\

minimum deviation position. ~

4. Another convex lens should be used in the path of emergent. ~
SPECTROMETER
A spectrometer is an optical instrument used to obtain and study a ~ p e · •
t&ll4VA& Ii&&& '4••t,..,&.a•v •••• • ••- --••..,.•••- •-• -- --- - C -- ------- . ---""- .., -
TURN TABLE

CROSS -WIRES

A spectrometer is used to ~ ~ •~d;);'t: dy the spectre of luminious body and

for determining the refr cti ~ ¥ fthe solids and liquids in the form of prisms. It
has the following main s:
1.Collimator:-It ~o two metallic coaxial tubes, such that one tube can be
made to sJ~ ~ ~4 the~·otner with the help of rack and pinion arrangem ent. The
slid1 ~ ~ ~justable vertical slit at one end, while the other tube fixed to the
arm of:~ec~ meter carries an achromatic lens.
f-'Feles~ pe:- An astronomical telescope having eye-piece is mounted horizontally
O!'.} an~ r arm of the spectrometer capable of rotating about a vertical axis passing
/

through the centre of another arm of the spectrometer capable of rotating about a
vertical axis passing through the centre of the prism. The telescope is attached to a
circular scale graduated in degrees, when the telescope is rotated, the circular scale
also rotates.
3. Prism Table:- It is a horizontal circular plate on which the prism can be placed.
The position of the prism table can be noted accurately with the help of the verniers
v;andVi.
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 21
prism.
Uses:-(i) It can be used to find the refractive index of the material of the
(ii) It can be used to find the dispersive power of the material of a prism.
(iii) A spectrometer can be used to obtain a pure spectrum.
** A spectrometer used for only observing the spectrum is called a spectroscope. A
is called a
spectrometer in which eye-piece is replaced by a photographic plate,
spectrograph.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
absorption and
Light travels in the form of electromagnetic radiation, Emmission,
.·
scattering are three process by which the radiation interacts with the matter
, ~ e
When an electromagnetic radiation is incident on an electric charge
,etd~ e
charged particle gets accelerated along the direction of the elecfV
~y force
incident radiation. Since the electric charge is at rest, it does not e~
erated by the
due to the magnetic field of the electromagnetic radiation. O~

is called "scattering".

[amount of scattering a ~
A.". '~
electric field, the electric charge emits radiation in all th~~ ~ti~; --and

~
this process

~~cr

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 22
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Magnifying power:-It is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at
the eye and the angle subtended by the object seen directly, when both lie at the )east
distance of distinct vision. It is a)so called angular magnification produced by the
lens.
[m=Pla]

Type of Microscope

(i) Simple Microscope . (ii) Compound Micro~

Prin~iple_: when a small objec'. is placed between optical centre and ~ fa ~ x

lens, its virtual erect a.nd magn1~ed image is formed on the sam;/ ~ t~ s
B' . ~
r-~~ . .
I ',"":_,, ....

:
I
I ", ',
',, , .....,,
,, ........ L
I ,, ',
I ',, '-...,..,.
I
I
I

- ' ..---
' - -A' F' A

~----D--
B . <a.>
--~
~~ .
-----0--- ---~
:v tb>
-.
~ 0.\
fy. . I .
By defi1m·t·1o~ ~ ~ ~wer of the s1mp · ·
e microscope 1s given by
~
AC=-u ''

AB
tanP=-
·. tanp OA
M=-
tana AB
tana=-
CA'
M= AB XCA'
OA AB
CA' V
M=- ⇒- .................... (i)
OA u
It focal length of the lens acting as simple microscope then
1 1 1
-=---
f V U

1 I 1
-=--+-
/ V U

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 V V
-=1+-
. . u I
Ifthe tmage found at the least distance.[v= D

[:=I+~]
-· · ~ . -- - - - . . .

From equation (i) [ M =I+~] ~

If the Image formed at.infinity:- · . A "11111

. . [M=~] ~~
Uses:- (i) Jewellers and watch makes used a simple microsco .

the vernier scales attached to the instruments.

Com ound Mic sc e

· A Compound microscope is used to see ex~ ~II objects. ·· - ·

It consists of two lenses. A lens o~ ~ ¥ and short focal length facing the
object is called object lens. And a~ot -~ ~f short fo~al length but large aperture .is
cal.led. eye lens. The two len~ lace ,,~oax1all~ at the two ends of a tu~. .
Prm~1ple: When a s~ l ~ " ~~,'ced Just outside the fo~us of the obJect lens, its
real, mverted and magni:.fjed 1m~glfs produced on the other side of the lens between F
and 2F. The im~ ~ by object lens acts as object for the eye lens. The
distance o~ ~ ject lens is so adjusted that the final image is fonned at

the le~-~~~~~n_c~ ~i~~~~-f~~~-t~~-~~:._·-··o••..- ....

EYEPIECE

D-.- - ---=-,1

Magnifying power:-

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 p
(I} when image formed at D: M =;
Smee, the angle a and p· are small, they can be replaced by their tangents i.e.
M= um.P -
., . -.... um.a
.. .
. . - ..___. . ,._ ,._,

A'B'
tanP= EA'
.. . . - . . - ....-- AB --·-
· tan a= -
D
A'B'/ EA' A'B' D
- M= ABID - = .AB (EAJ ---- --
Ifthe distances of the object AB and the image A'B' from the objective O ~0
u
and
v0 respectively, then from the magnification formula we have (taking~ , r )
A'B' v0
AB = -ti .

Therefore, from the above formula, we have ~·

0 0

c:..·.
M =- v (~-D V ( -· . .. . . .. .. . .. . : • ••(i)
Uo - ' Uo · e
Now there are two possibilities:

(i) The final image is formed at the leas~~ ~ of the distinct vision: If the
distan~e of the. final image A"B" ~ )_e ce be D, t1,en in applying the lens

formula ~ -~ -_!_ for the eyepiece, we shall have

f J'V u

~~ , u=-u, andf=+f. . ·
a n~ the eye-piece. Now we get
1 1 1
----=-
D -ue f.e
1 1 l
-=-+-
ue D fe
D =l+ D
ue fe
Substituting this value of plue in eq(i), we get

M = -~(l +!!...) .. .. .. .... ...... ... ...(ii)

Uo fe .
In this position the length of the microscope will be v0 +ue

(ii) When the final image is formed at infinity:

ue =le
In this position the length of the microscope will be v0 +le.
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\r
25
Astronomical Telescope

An astronomical telescope is used to see heavenly objects. An astronomical refracting

telescope consists of two lens systems. The lens system facing the .object is called
objective. It has large aperture and is of short focal length (f0 ). The other lens system
is called eye- piece. It has small aperture and is of short focal length (le). The
objective and the eye-piece are mounted coaxially in two metallic tubes.
Principle:-The objective forms of the real and inverted image of the distant object at
its focal plane. The position of the eye-piece is adjusted, till the final image is formed
at least distance of distinct vision. · .... ~,>- \
OBJECT IVE

o(

::
. . ...---
,,,,,.,'',..,.:::,:.'
,~;_::;;---
i!iP" ft·- ,-~--
.,.__ _ _ D - - - - . . ,

Ma ;;wJ
(i) when final image is for cl,. t distance of distinct vision

~ M - a
A'B'
tan a = - -
tan/J OA'
tana A'B'
tan/J= -
EA'
OA' ,_
Or M=- OA'=fo ' EA -Ue
EA'

[ M = -~ l········ ...............(i)
I I I
For eye lens:- -=---
/ V U

I I I
-=-- +-
le Ve Ue

[~.=;, <]
_I =_
Ue
l (1 + feJ .......... ·········· (ii)
le Ve

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 M =-fo
I,
(1 + /,)
v,
[v, =D]

[M=-7,(t+~)]
*when~telescope is in nomial adjustment, the distance between the two lenses is
equal to sum of their focal lengths(fo +fe)

(ii) When final image is formed at infinity:-

(M = ~ 7.] .
In this position the length of the telescope.will be fo + fe
Note: In order to increase the magnifying power of a telescope the foca en oo

· Reflecting Telescope A "'

To obtain a 'bright' image of a distant object by me~ la ~ting telescope it is
essential that the objective is of a large apertur that ~ ay collect enough light
coming from the object. But objectives oCry la~ aperture are difficult to
manufacture and'."° very costly. The ~
of large aperture mstead of a lens. ~
~

Construction: lil a reflecting telesco~

~-= ·.
eved by using ·a concave mirror

:,objective is a concave mirror M 1 of large

focal-length and large apertu~ eh is fitted at one end of a wide tube. The open end
of the tube is directedj o~ , ; .tant object.to be seen. The tube carries a plan
mirror M2 which~ ~tween the concave mirror M 1and its focus, and is
inclined at an a~ e ~ 45° to the principal axis of Mt. A small side tube carries a
convex leIJ,.\_
~ ~UJ'J em-::'length and small aperture .Eis called the eyepiece.

Mago~
~ .
''y M=-fo
le
Merits:
~
i. The image formed by a reflecting telescope is brighter than that formed by a
refracting telescope of equivalent size because in the latter the intensity of light is
partially lost due to reflection and absorption by the objective lens glass.
ii. Further, in reflecting telescope the image is free from chromatic aberration,
because only reflection is involved, while this defect persists in the image formed by a
refracting telescope.

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r 27
... H.gh · achieved b ·
reso Iution .
m. 1
Yusmg a mirror of large aperture which is easier to
support than a lens of equal aperture.

Some Important Features of a Telescope

A telescope should have high magnifying power, high resolving power and large
gathering power. So now discussed about all the terms.
es
(1) High magnifying power:- A telescope having high magnifying power produc
t
apparently a magnified image and hence enables to see the finer, details of the distinc
object. when in normal adjustment(final image formed at infinity),

M = J;,

the images of two very near parts of an object as separate. T , efore, te escope of
high resolving power also enables to observe the finer ~ } istant object.

~~~
The angular limit of resolution is given by

Where D is a diameter of objective and ,! is e~ the light used.

"Hence, a telescope will have small valu~ "'a~gulJ r limit of resolution and hence
high resolving power, if objective of a~ dia!ll.,s!Yand light of short wave length are
used to see the distant object. ~ y
3 Lar e Ii ht atherin o~ k A tele c~pe of large light gathering power collects

a large amount of light ~tii ~ ~nt object and hence the image formed will be
very bright. The ligll'l\i .th~ g power and hence the brightness of the image is
directly proporti~ ~of the objective

~
~--~
2

Brigh tnessa ~

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 ••Photometry (Not in the course of ISC)
The branch of physics, which deals with the measurement of light energy or with the
comparision of illuminating power of the sources or with_the c~~pari~n of the
-. . .
illumination of the surfaces is called Photometry.
----. . - · . .... LUMINOUS FLUX AND .LUMINOUS iNTENSITY
Luminous Flux:-The luminous flux through a given surface is defined as the amount
·or l~inout erie~gy -th~t -p~~~s-·th~ugh· th[~ud~~~. in one . sec~·~ r -i~--
7
~ · direction
normal to the surface. It is denoted by ; . The unit of luminous flux is lumen.
. .. . - ·•. ~ -. .

Lumino~s Intensity:-The lumino~s-intensity of a source· is defined -as the lµJJtinous

flux emitted per unit solid angle by the source. It is also known as illumi . ~ er
(I). The unit of luminous intensity is candela (ed.).
. . Totalluminousflu
-• .-- .. -- - --- -- .. Luminous Intensity= .
totalsolidin
l=j_ .
. ·. ·1;-~~f . ~~ . .
INTENSITY OF ILLUMINATION:- The l~ ~us. fl~ and luminous intensity of a
source ·~ ~harac.teristi~s of.the. source ot'i,~
light from a source flllls on a
surface, 1ts mtens1ty of 1llummat1on ~ ~ n the following factors: .
(i) Luminous intensity of th~ ~
(ii) \ ~ c f~
The distance ofth~~ the source of light
( iii) The d'irect~ ~ w ic the light falls on the surface.

~~"'cr

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 Polarisation of light

Polarisation of light: In an ordinary light wave the vibrations of the electric vector
occur symmetrically in all possible direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave. When a light wave in incident on a tourmaline crystal,
only those vibrations of'the wave emerge from the crystal which are parallel to the
axis of the crystal; the remaining vibrations are stopped by the crystal. Thus, after
emerging from the crystal, the vibrations of the electric vector of the light wave occur
only in a single direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of

K,V
the wave (not in all directions, as before). Such a wave is called 'plane-~' ;r
'linearly polarised' wave and this phenomenon is called 'pofarisation

Un polarised and polarized Light- ~~

In ordinary or unpolarised light, the vibrations of t h ~ ~ t o r E occur
symmetrically in all possible directions in a plane pe'-d~~to the directi~n of
propagation of light. Therefore, . wh~n ord!na~ i· ~sed through a smgle
rotating tourmaline crystal, there is no chan\crln.~e i~sity of the emergent light.
The reason is c_lear. ~n al~ orientation~~~~ g crystal, th~ probability of the
occurrence of hght v1brat1ons paralle1~,Qfi-e:z3J'jX£ the crystal ts same. Hence the
intensity of light emerging rrp ~e~ ame in all orientations of the crystal.

ORDINARY POLARISED MAXIMUM .

~ t*J-+--© t'Gi! © LtiT ~ ( Q.,)

ORDINARY

& L~~~--]4- --l© POLARISED

LiGiTt ~
,._,,,/NIMUM

LIGHT~

< b>

In polarised light, the vibrations of the electric vector E occur in a plane

perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light, and are confined to a single
direction in the plane (do not occur symmetrically in all possible directions).
Polarisation of Light by Reflection: Brewster's Law-

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 30
In 1808, Matus discovered that when
unpolarised light is reflected from the
p
surface of a transparent material (as R
glass), the reflected light becomes
partially plane polarised. The degree of
polarisation depends upon the angle of
incidence. For particular angle of
incidence, the reflected light ts
completely plane-polarised with
vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. This angle of incidence is
called the 'polari sing' ip. ~ ·' \ . ~
Brewster_ dis~overed that there is a simple relati-~ we~ polarising ip
and the refractive index n of the transparent ma~ w1~ he respect to the
surrounding medium, which is given by ~ '\,,
n=tan ip.

also called as
' Brews ter's angle' . The Breste r's an~ e for, air.,~ 's s 57°.
A direct conclusion from B~ ~ aw is that when light is incident on a
transparent surface at the pola1ising a~ e', the reflected and the refrac
ted rays are
. perpendicular to each othe51 f i l ~e ;,ved as below :
In figure 6, QR~ d ~ are the reflected and the reflected rays respec
tively, ip
is the angle of incal~ ~ the angle of refraction. By snell's law,
we have

~\ J. ,, n~ ~i:;
~- -.. n=tan ip (Brew ster's law) .

:. tanz. ( =siniP
- - =siniP
--
J
P cosiP sinr
Or cosiP = sinr = cos(90° - r).
. lp
.. . = 90° - r
Or iP + r = 90°
Polaroid-
Polaroid is a cheap commercial device for producing and detecting
plane-polarised
light. It is a large -sized polarising film mounted between two glass plates.
To prepare
this film, ultra-microscopic crystals of herpathite (Iodosulphate of Quinin
e) are spread
by a special device on a thin sheet of nitro-cellulose in such a way that
the optic axes
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 31
of all the crystals are parallel. These
UNP0LAR15£D
crystals are highly dichroic, absorbing LIGHT
one of the doubly-refracted beams
completely. Each Polaroid-film has a
characteristic direction which is called
the 'polarising direction'. In fig this
direction is shown by parallel lines.
POLAROID FILM
Law of Malus-
When a completely plane-polarised light
beam from a polarizer is incident on an "-. __)

analyser, the intensity of light emerging from the analyser varies as e · uareY the

cosine of the angle between the polarising direction ~f (00 ~~d t ' t of the

polariser (that is, the direction of the electric vector of hgh~ c1de~~ e anal~ser).

According to this law, if /0 be the intensity of,grai e~ ~ed light fall mg on

the analyser, and Ube the angle between polaris~

analyser, then the intensity of light emerging
.L
f=~ oCO~
6 -
~
~ f the polariser and the
ser is given by

Use of polaroids-
Polaroids have several uses in daily1fte:...' \
(i) One of the main~ of po~ ds is to avoid the glare of light. The light

reflected fro~ brig~ ~\ faces such as wet roads, cover glasses of

paintings, ~ lishe tables, glazy and white papers, is partially plane-
polarife ~it~ tions in the horizontal plane. This light on reaching the
' \ . ~ ~are. (It is for this reason that our eye-experiences glare
_ .~ ~ ing a book of glazy paper.) The glare can be avoided by wearing
~ 01_arised sun glasses with their vibration-planes vertical. Then most of the
prt'arised light reflected from the objects will be cut off. ( we see the
objects in diffused light.)
(ii) Polaroids are used in motorcars to avoid the dazzing light of a car
approaching from the opposite direction. For this, polaroids are fitted on
the cover glasses of the head-light and on the wind screen of each car. The
axes of these polaroids are inclined towards right from the vertical at an
angle of 45°. When two cars approach each other from opposite
directions, then the axes of the polaroids fitted on the head-light of one car
and on the wind screen of the other car become 'crossed ' Hence the fioht
0

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 l
of the head-light of one car is completely cut off by the wind-sc reen of
the other and so it.does not reach the eye directly. Howev er, the driver is
able to see the other car in the light sent out from his own car.
(iii) Sometimes we are not able to see properly very minute particles through a
microscope due to glare. Then microscopes fitted with polaroi ds are used.
(iv) · Distinct photographs of clouds can be taken by fitting polaroi ds infront the
camera-lens. Generally, since the scattered light is always present in the
atmosphere, we cannot take distinct photograph of clouds by the light
reflected from the clouds. Since the scattered light is partially- po
is mostly cut off by the Polaroid fitted in the camera; w
reflected from the clouds, being unpolarised, enters the

(v)
white clouds is obtained.
Polaroids are use~ to control t~e i_ntensi~
&
background becomes sufficiently dark against which cl

. I~~ ! enter_ing trains and

aeroplanes. For this, one Polaroid 1s fi e: : ~ e 1 e wmdow and the
ot~ers is fitted i~sid~ w~ich can_~ tate The mtensity of light can be
adJusted by rotatmg the mner P~ ia~ .
(vi) . Polaroid glasses are used f9Ji ¥ ! ~ ~-dimensional pictures.
(vii) Polaroids are used in s~ al properties Of metals and in analyzing

~~~

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 33

Nature of light
Wave front:- If we draw a surface in a medium such that all medium particles lying
in the surface are in the same phase of oscillation, then the surface is called a 'wave
front'.

PLANE WAVE FRONT SPHERICAl WAVE FRONT

(a) (b) .

Plane Wave Fro -I

Hu1~en's Wave theory: Huygens' proposed the ~ ory 3/'ight. According to

Huygen's light travels in the form of waves. Tl\_~ wave~ fter emergmg from the

light- source travel in all directions "'.ith the v~ f~ t.

Huygens' Principal ~ secondary Wavelets
Huygens proposed on hyp~-thesis ~~~. ;:opagation of waves i~ a medium
which is called 'Huygens' Principal o~ ) aary wavelets'. For this, Huygen's made

the following assumptions: , ( } - . ) _ . _ .

(1) when wave~ ~~ om a source m a medium. The medium particles

aroun~ ~ ~re set in oscillation. That surface in the medium in
- w~ h ~ thez articles are in the same phase of oscillating is called the
, ~ v~ ont' ~-fthe wave source is a point-source, then the wave front is
s~ c)Y.
E,rry particle of the medium situated on the wave front becomes a new-
source from which new waves spread in all A' A'
directions. These waves are called 'secondary
wavelets' which advance in the medium with
the speed of the original wave.
(iii) The envelope of these advancing wavelets
drawn at any instant gives the new wave front
at that instant.

(a)
B'
(b)
{Fig. 5)

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 34
Explanation of the reflection of waves by Huygens' Principal of
secondary Wavelets:

(Fig. 8)
- .. --., ..
Let xz' be a reflecting surface on which a plane wave front AB is incident obliquely.
Suppose, at the time t=O the wave front touches the surface u: at the point A.
Suppose' the speed of the wave front is v and the point
second in reaching the point A' of the surface.
,y
.~
ro 4~es t

AB' =vt=BA'
In~ABA' and ~AB'A'
(i) L ABA'= LAB'A' (each 90°) ~ ,.~

~~
(ii) AB'~ BA' (already proved) . t>.. ·' \ ,
(iii)AA' (common) ,..._
~ABA';, ~AB'A' .~~
Then L _BAA'"' LB'A'A ~~
This is the second law of reflection' ~ .

Explanatl°ij'h of ~efraction of waves

'~>
When wave traverse~ ~\]9illogeneous medium into another homogeneous
medium, it is dev~ ~ath. The concept is called ' refraction' . In figure xz' is
a surface s, trating two media. Let v 1and v2 be the
speeds of 1~ w!lv~ thls~ edi_a. Suppose a plane wave

fr.on~ - ~~m~iu~ at time t .

~ \. y A B-v1t .................(1)
t tlie.e time distance covered in other medium
AB' =v2t .. ... .. ..... (ii)

sini (A'B).(AA' )
= -- -'--- (Fig. 7)
smr (AA' )(AB' )

sini vif
,n2 = - . - = -
smr vif

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 I
35
, I _ v1 _ speedojlig,tinthevaccum
I n2 - - - --=----=--~-----
1 V2 speedojlig,tinmedium

Effect on wavelength of light in going from one medium to another

When light passes from one medium to another, then its frequency v does not
change, but its speed and hence its wavelength the changes. If the speed of light in
water be v and the wavelength be w.
Then v= v l w ................(i)

In Vaccum the speed of light is (c). If the wavelength be A, then

C= u l ........ :.......(ii)
C A.
n=-=-
v Aw
Maxwell's Electroma

Maxwell proved on the basis of mathematical fo~ nly tha hen in an electric
circuit changes with very high frequency then <\ner~Y. ~ that circuit propag~tes
outwards in the form of waves. These wave~~ ~H~ electromagnetic waves'. In

these waves, el_ectric field 1 and m~gn~ ~are perpendicular to each other
and also perpendicular to the directi~ j;agation of the wave. .
For the propagation of the? ~; es, pteptfce of medium is net necessary, that is,
electromagnetic waves ca~ a~ \ :,ccum.
,CIIU'"""M' ·- ---- - E E ,

DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION

-1AGNETIC FIELD B
- E

• ~ ~01: ed by calcula'.ion that the speed of dectromagnetic waves is 3 x Io•

mis, - ~t 1s the speed of hght m vaccum. On the basis, Maxwell concluded that light
travels in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Important facts about Electromagnetic waves Summarized

(i) The electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charge.

(ii) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation.

(iii) l
These waves travels in free space with a speed given by ~ whose
',jµO 8 0

value equals the speed of light in free space.

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 98371400 I 0

 36
(iv) The energy in electromagnetic waves is divided, on the avera
ge, equally
between electric and magnetic fields.
Planck's Quantum Hypothesis \
According to Planck' s quantum theory, the emission or absor
ption of radiation is not
continuous, but takes place in the form of small bundles or
packets of definite amount
of energy which are called 'quantum or 'phot ons'. The energ
y associated with each
photon is hv, ~her e v is the frequency of radiation and h
is Plan k's constant and its
own existence.
Total energ y= work function +K. E.
hv= W+ K. E.
hv=hvo+½mv' ~ -
or .!.mv
2
2
= h (v-vo) A~ 4

where h = Planck's Constant ~ '\.,

v = frequency of photon ~~
vo = Threshold frequenc~
·
this eq" is called Einstien Photo electric e~ ·
A part of this energy is used in electric the....ele.ct?l the metal and rest is given to the
ejected electron as K. E. All the el~ ~jected from
the surface of the metal.
The electron which are ejecteN rom w19tin the metal. They
expend some of their
acquired energy in collisiol( ~b~ e' atoms on their way
to the surface. The electron
emitted from the surfa l~f ~ ~ve max. K.E. because
their energy is not lost by
collision. ~~
Suppose K.~ \oto e~ on emitted from the surface metal have max. K.E and w
is the requfre_d....to'e j, pt a photo electron from the metal. W
is the work function.
~ ~ atter waves and de- Broglie Wavelengths
fight ~ dXt nature. De Broglie told that whenever a material particle as electron,
proton etc. is in motion, then it behaves as a wave , that
is,, material particles' in
motion' are associated with a wave . According to the quan
tum theory of light, the
energy of a photon associated with light wave of frequency
vis given by E = hv
Where h is Planck' s constant.
hv = mc2
. .
Kmet1c mass m = -hv2 [ ·: c=v l]
C

Or h
m= -
v.A.2
Momentum P = m x c

Contact: Unique Lnst. Mob : 9837140010

 . hv hv
P= -xc=>-
c2 C
hv
Or P=--
vl
h.
P=-
,i
h
A.=-
p
Thus, the wavelength associated with a photon is hip.
de Broglie wavelength of electron:-
- h
we know that ·

mv1
If K be the K. E. of the electro;~!~•:., ~

v~2: . ~~
v=f} ~",,
Now, the de- Broglie wavelength=i{ ~

/4~~ 2ink).. . .
-· · Let us now consider that the el~ctro),acquires K.E. on bemg accelerated from
rest through a p. d. of v volt, then-

. ~\
'V
::·\✓2mev .

,.i = 12.27 A o
~~~ - ✓v
\.., Interferenee
~ ~
Interference o o waves:- when the two waves of same frequency travel in a
~ ium),Xltaneously in the same direction then, due to their superposition, the
resu~ t intensity at any point of the medium is different from the sum of intensities
of the two waves at some points the intensity of the resultant wave is very large while
at some other points it is very small or zero. The phenomenon is called the
'interference of waves. The interference is said to be ' constructive at points where the
resultant intensity is maximum, and 'destructive' at points where the resultant
intensity is minimum or zero.
Resultant Intensity y1=a1sin mt .... .. .... (i)
y2=a2sin( ax+~) ........(ii)
By the principal of superposition,
· Contact: 1,Jnique Inst. Mob: 9837140010
 Y =Yi+ Y2
y = a 1 sin wt+ sin(wt + <p)

y = a1 sin wt+ a 2 [sin(mt).cos<p + cosmt.sin<p]

y = a1 sin wt+ a2 sin wt.cos¢+ a2 cosmt.sin<p

y = (a1 + a2 cos<p)sinwt + a2 sin<p(coswt)

Let a1 + a2 cos<p = R cos0 .............(iii)

a2 sin<p = Rsin0 ... ....... ........ (iv)

[y=Rsin(ax+8)] · ~
Squaring and adding of equation (iii) and (iv) ~ -
2
2
R2 cos 0 + R sin 0 = (a1 + a2 cos<;)2 + (~ 2 s·
2
i
· R2 = a 2 + a 2 cos2 0 + 2a a cos.,,+
1 2 1 2
,1,
a. 22 si•
2 2
[R =a, +a2 +2a,a2 cosjl]
2
~

~
Intensity
[I= a.' + a, + 2a1a2 cos0]A..
2

For Jmin' cos0=-1 ~'_"'

Jmin =(a1 ~a2)2 • .~ ... (i)

For cos0 =1~~-b..

~
2 ~
I max= al + a/ ~ 2a1a
!max ~ ,a +~ )2 •,,...,. ..... .. ... ....... (ii)
f ~ (il
y )2 1
.J >2
a1 ~ ai

~ • .bl~-slit interference Experiment fig

•. . N
L M B

''
'
' \
\

I
I '
, I

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010

 39
Determination of wavelength of light by measuring Fringe-width
Let s be a narrow slit illuminated by monochromatic light, and s, and s 2 be two
parallel narrow slits very close to each other and equidistant from s. the light waves
from s reach s I and s2 in the same phase.

The A s1 As2 and A PCO are similar. s 11_-----::-:-:::=::?~

Therefore, I f
.s----c1.--I\ (J
-
----- X
l
S2A = S1S2 I lc ----------------- 0
OP cp $2( . I

S2A
-=-
d ------o-----~ SCREEN

x D
- ~
Path difference (s2A) = xd
D
Positions of Bright Fringe:-
mA=xd
D

Position of dark fringe c;;

-
Where m- 1,2,3 ......
<m-½J
,~~
;i._Q
I'
. '- .dth
smge~w•
The distance between two consecutive brigli( or dark fringe is called 'Fringe-width'.
Let Xm and Xm+ 1 be the distanct'c;'t-)lwo brig])t fringe
r"~ <_:
~~
'D).,
...................(. 1)
F. n
~A-WIDTH OF
BRIGHT FRINGE
l
1~
7
y D}. .. ; I

~ . ~+t =(m+ l ) d .... ... .... . (11)

~ ~ width= xm+I -xm

· w = (m + l)D}., _ mD.J. .
~~ d d ; : WIDTHOF
' '\ y W- DA "if___/ DARK FRINGE

i o}!l;,,Fringe-width: The angular posftion of the.m th bright fringe is

0 = xm = mD.J./ d = m.J.
D D d
And that of the (m+ 1)th bright fringe is
_ (m+I)}.,
0m+I - d
:. angular distance between two consecutive fringes, that is, the angular fringe-width
is given by
0=0m+l-0m
= (m+l).J. __m_.J. =~
d d D
Conditions for Interference in light
Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010
 40
(i) The phase difference between the waves emerging from the two source
of light must remain constant.
(ii) The frequencies or_w~velength of the two waves sJ10µl9 be equal.
(iii) The amplitudes of the two waves should be equal or nearly equal.
(iv) The two sources light should be very close to each other.
(v) The two light sources must be very narrow.

. cr

Contact: Unique Inst. Mob: 9837140010