NUCLEIC ACID

Nucleic Acid
- It is an important class of macromolecules found in all cells
- Macromolecules is a very large structure and it has a long chain
- The functions of nucleic acids have to do with the storage (nucleus) and expression
of genetic information
- It is macromolecules made out of units called nucleotides, come in two naturally
occurring varieties: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

DNA
- it is a deoxyribonucleic acid
- it is a trait
- a intertwined structure

RNA
- ribonucleic acid
- single structure/stranded
- protein synthesis

1. Entire mitotic chromosome (1400nm)

- 2 sister chromatids via centromere
2. Condensed section of chromosome (700nm)
- condense is compressed structure
3. Section of chromosome in an extended form (300nm)
4. Chrimatine (30nm & 11nm)
- intertwined strand(chromatids)
- histones
5. Short region of DNA double helix (2nm)

3 PARTS OF A NUCLEOTIDE
DNA & RNA are polymers
- Nucleotide are made up of monomers
- When the monomers combine the resulting chain is called polynucleotide
(poly=many)
Made up three parts:
Nitrogenous base
Sugars
Phosphate group

Nitrogenous base
- a organic molecule
Four possible nitrogenous base: Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
- Adenine and Guanine are purines
Purines means two carbon nitrogenous rings
- Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidines
Pyrimidines means single carbon nitrogenous base

DNA- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine

RNA - Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil(U)
Sugars
DNA and RNA nucleotides also have slightly different sugars
The five-carbon sugar in
DNA - deoxyribose ( Lack of oxygen in 2')
RNA - ribose (consists of oxygen on 2') ( form of 5 carbon ring structure)
The carbon atoms of a nucleotide’s sugar molecule are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, and
5′
(1′ is read as “one prime”)

Phosphate group
- Nucleotides may have a single phosphate group, or a chain of up to three
phosphate groups, attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar
- When the nucleotide joins the growing DNA or RNA chain, it loses two phosphate
groups.
- In a chain of DNA or RNA, each nucleotide has just one phosphate group

Pair:
Thymine and adenine is pair because of 2 hydrogen bond
Guanine and cytosine is pair because of 3 hydrogen bond

DNA replication

• semi conservative half of each side to use as a template to use to make a new
complementary template ( half is the parental and in the middle is the new daughter
complementary strand )

• synthesize "to build up a new strand"

- starter ( primer ) will initially start the DNA replication
- To start the process of replication there is a leading strand and is a continuous
piece ( 5' to 3' direction and referred to the left strand)
- lagging strand is slower because it follows the 3' to 5' direction.

Step 1: unzipping ( splitting the DNA strands)

- Creation of Development or replication fork
- Will split into single individual strands
- stored inside the nucleus

Step 2: Identify the replication fork

Leading strand - taas ] Parental strand (holds the template to begin)
Lagging strand - baba
- in between will form a new template
- parental to complementary strands (vice versa)

Step 3: RNA Primase

- leading strand will be the first to make a complementary strand
- starting strand ( RNA primase) ( primers: guanine, cytosine, adenine, uracil).

LAGGING STRAND
- Will start at the middle section ( likod haggang sa harap)

- DNA POLYMERASE III will end at the top because of the direction of 3' to 5'

• Okazaki fragments
- Section by section

DNA POLYMERASE I
- verifier of new complementary strands and will replace if there is a error ( replaces
uracil with thymine from new strands )
- thymine ( parental strands)

DNA ligase
- serves as the adhesive to the parental strand and complementary strand .
 RESPITATORY SYSTEM & CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System

Respiration
On the cellular level, it is the release of energy from food molecules that occurs in
mitochondria
On an organismal level, it is the gas exchange that occurs between the lungs and the
environment
Sometimes referred to as breathing
Necessary for cellular respiration to continue

Basic Function
To bring about the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood, air and tissues
Consists of a network of passageways that permit air to flow into and out of the lungs

Parts
NOSE (Nasal Cavity)
- lined with cilia and mucous that clean, warm, and moisten the air
- external(sa labas) opening of the nose is the nostrils or anterior nares
- dividing partition between the nostrils is the nasal septum(divider) which forms two
nasal cavities
- nasal cavity has 3 air passages: superior
Middle
Interior conchae
- palatine(palate)bones and maxilla(upper jaw bones)
- cilia is a hairs line the mucous membrane

Pharynx
- also known as throat
- where oral cavity and nasal cavity meet
- muscular and membranous tube
- 5 inches long from nasal to esophagus
Nasopharynx - behind the nose
Oropharynx - behind the mouth
Laryngopharynx - behind the larynx

3Pairs
Pharyngeal tonsil
Palatine tonsils
Lingual tonsils

Trachea
- windpipe
- a tube lined with cilia and mucous, surrounded by rings of cartilage for support,
which branches into 2 tubes
- C-shaped rings
- 1 inch in diameter and 4 1/2 inches long

Larynx
- voice box
- lined with mucous membrane
- short is tense vocal cords produce high notes
- long is relaxed vocal cords produce low notes
Larynx side view
Thyroid cartilage
Epiglottis
Cricoid

Bronchi
- 2 tubes lined with cilia and mucous, surrounded by rings of cartilage for support,
which enter the lungs
- 2 main brances at the bottom of trachea, providing passageway for air to the lungs
- trachea divides into right bronchus and left bronchus
- left bronchi is smaller than the right bronchi
- branch into many smaller tubes called bronchioles

Bronchioles
- lined with a mucous membrane, and at the end of each tube are the alveoli

Alveoli
- millions of air sacs found at the end of bronchioles; the walls are thin, moist and
surrounded by capillaries

The functional unit of the respiratory system where gas exchange occurs
Gas exchange occurs through diffusion

Lungs
- two spongy organs located in the thorax
- each lung is divided into lobes
Right lung
- 3 lobes ( SUPERIOR, MIDDLE, INFERIOR)
Left lung
- 2 lobes (SUPERIOR, INFERIOR)
- has a indentation (little curve) called cardiac depression or notch for placement the
heart

Deoxygenated blood comes in CO2 - blueish

Oxygenated blood goes out hemoglobin reacts to oxygen - reddish

Gas Excgange
- oxygen dissolves in the moisture on the inner surface of the alveoli and then
diffuses across the capillary into the blood (Gas diffusion)
- once the blood, oxygen binds to hemoglobin( red blood cell)
- hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity blood by 60 times
( alveoli to capillaries) VICE VERSA

Breathing
- the movement of air into and out of the lungs
- not a completely voluntary ( signal) and involuntary (brain)
- controlled by the medulla oblongata
- the higher the CO2 level, the stronger the impulses until you have to take a breathe
The regulation of CO2 in your blood is an example of negative feedback

Inhalation
- ribs move out and up and the diaphragm moves down

Exhalation
- ribs move in and down and the diaphragm moves up
Circulatory System

Heart
Muscle - Cardiac
Tissue - pericardium
Divided into left and right sides - septum
Septum - has two chamber
Two chamber: Upper and Lower
Upper chamber - atria ( receive blood)
Lower chamber - ventricle (pump blood out of the heart)
Atria and ventricles are separated by valves.

Blood circulation
1. Superior and inferior vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. To the lungs
8. Pulmonary vein
9. Left atrium
10. Mitral valve
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13. Aorta
14. To the rest of the body

Blood vessels

Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart
- blood under great pressure
- thicker, more muscular walls
- oxygenated blood

Veins
- carry blood back to the body
- blood under less pressure
- thinner walls, larger diameter
- valves prevent back flow
- deoxygenated blood

Capillaries
- move blood between veins, arteries and cells
- thinnest and smallest blood vessel in body
- it is narrow and they tend to q-align

Tissue layer composition

Endothelium
Smooth muscle
Connective tissue
Blood Pressure
- The force of the blood on the walls of the arteries
- Measured with a sphygmomanometer (blood
pressure cuff)

-The first number is the systolic pressure

• The force felt in the arteries when the
ventricles contract

-The second number is the diastolic pressure

• The force of the blood felt in the arteries
when the ventricles relax.

Blood circulation

Properties Artery Vein Capillary

Pressure (high or High Low Normal
low)
Type of blood Oxygen rich Oxygen poor Both
Layer of tissues Thick Thin Normal
(thick or thin
Tissue layer Endothelium Endothelium Endothelium
composition Smooth muscle Smooth muscle
Connective tissue Connective tissue
Valve

Break in Capillary Wall

Blood vessels injured.

Clumping of Platelets
Platelets clump at the site and release thromboplastin.
Thromboplastin converts prothrombin into thrombin.

Clot Forms
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which causes a clot.
The clot prevents further loss of blood..