BASIC RULES

 All authors’ names should be inverted.

 Authors’ first and middle names should be written as initials
EXAMPLE:
Jane Nicholas Smith
Smith, J.N.

What must be done if there are 2 to 20 authors?

BASIC RULES
 Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors.
 If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final
author’s name.
EXAMPLE:
Mariel B. Santos, Gillian May B. Anyayahan, Renelou I. Lumibao, David F. Sy, Hannah Joy P. Wyatt
Santos,M.B., Anayayahan, G.M. B., Lumibao, R. I., Sy, D. F., & Wyatt, H.J. P.

Wiskunde, B., Arslan, M., Fischer, P., Nowak, L., Van den Berg, O., Coetzee, L., Juárez, U., Riyaziyyat, E., Wang, C., Zhang,
I., Li, P., Yang, R., Kumar, B., Xu, A., Martinez, R., Mclntosh, V., Ibáñez, L. M., Mäkien, G., Virtanen, E., & Kovács,
A. (2019). Indie pop rocks mathematics: Twenty One Pilots, Nicolas Burbaki, and the empty set. Journal of
Improbable Mathematics, 27(1), 1935-1968. https://doi.org/10.000/3mp7y-537

BASIC RULES
 Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of periodicals, names of newspapers, and
magazines.)
 Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in
edited collections.

BOOKS (ONE AUTHOR)

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of the work. Publisher Name. DOI (if available)
Antoine, C.C. (2008). The citation style. Oxford University Press.

D – igital
O – bject Static
I – dentifier

EDITED BOOKS WITH AN AUTHOR OR AUTHORS

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Book title: Capital letter also for subtitle (E. Editor, Ed.). Publisher. DOI (if available)
Malory, T. (2017). The death of Arthur (P.J. Field, Ed.). Brewer Publishing House.

EDITED BOOK WITH NO AUTHOR

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Book title: Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher. DOI (if available)
Anacay, M. E., & Rivera, M. X. (Eds). (2016). Critical reading and writing skills. The Intelligente Publishing Inc.

Ed. – editor
ed. – edition
EDITION OTHER THAN THE FIRST

Author, A. A> (Year of Publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle (# ed.). Publisher. DOI (if available)
Belchet, W. (2019). Writing your journal article in twelve weeks: A guide to academic publishing success (2nd ed.).
University of Chicago Press.

ARTICLE IN PRINT JOURNAL

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.
Guarin, M. J. (n.d.). The power of the English language. The Month,10(3),5-13.

n.d. – no date

ARTICLE IN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.https:/ /url.org
Baniya, S. & Weech, S. (2019). Data and experience design: Negotiating Community –Oriented Digital Research
with Service-Learning. Purdue Journal of Service and International Engagement,10(3),54-13.

ARTICLE IN A PRINT NEWSPAPER

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Title, pages.

Bidey, S. (2022, October 10). Bid to curb youth crime. Townsville Bulletin, p. 13.

ARTICLE IN AN ONLINE NEWSPAPER

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Title. URL

Rucker, P. (2022, October 10). White House struggloes to silence talk of Trump’s mental fitness. The Washington
Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com

p.
pp. Only in newspaper

ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE (PRINT)

Author, A. A. (Year of publication, Month Day if given). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Magazine,
Volume number(Issue Number), pages.
Abramsky, S. (2020, October 14). The othe America 2021. Nation, 246(20), 11-18.

ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE (ONLINE)

Author, A. A. (Year of publication, Month Day if given). Title of article: Subtitle if any. Name of Magazine. URL
Freedman, D. H. (2022, May) The perfected self. The Atlantic.
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archieve/2012/06/the-perfectedself/8970/4/?single_page=true

THESIS AND DISSERTATION (PRINT)

Author, A. A. (Year). Title:Subtitle [Type of thesis]. Name of institution awarding the degree.
Lienart, G. H. (2016). Effects of temperature and food availability on the antipredator behavior of juvenile coral
reef fishes[Doctoral thesis]. James Cook University.
THESIS AND DISSERTATIONS (ONLINE)

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of thesis: Subtitle [Type of thesis, name of institution awarding degree]. Name of archive
or site. URL
Lienart, G. H. (2016). Effects of temperature and food availability on the antipredator behavior of juvenile coral
reef fishes[Doctoral thesis, James Cook University]. Research Online.
https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/47533/

PHOTOGRAPHS (MUSEUM)

Artist, A. A. (Year). Title of work [Medium]. Museum, Location.

Luna, J. (n.d.). Spoliarium [Painting]. National Museum of Fine Arts, Manila.

PHOTOGRAPHS (ONLINE)

Artist Surname, A. A. (Year). Title of the artwork [Format]. Title of the Website. URL
Baumel, A. (2010). Cholera treatment center in Haiti [Online image]. Doctors Without Borders.
https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org

PHOTOGRAPHS (NO ARTIST NAME)

Title of the work [Type of work]. (Year image was created). Title of the Website. URL (address of web site)
Fly epidemic [Online image]. (2019). History. http://www.history.net/photo/flu-epidemic-art/collections

FORMAT FOR STREAMING VIDEOS

Creator, A. A. (Date). Title of video [Video]. Host site URL

Heffernan, M. (2015, May 5). Why it’s time to forget the pecking order to work [Video]. Ted Conferences.
https://www.ted.com/talks/margaretheffernan

PIECE OF ONLINE CONTENT

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of online content: Subtitle. Website Name. URL
Aubrey, A. (2019, December 12). How to reduce food waste. Food for Life. https://www.food_fpr_life.org
MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: The Six Stages

1. Rules are fixed and absolute
2. Judging actions according to individual needs
3. Conforming and being “nice”
4. Respecting authority
5. Considering Individual rights

PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

1. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE
 It is the being, which is the source of a person’s consciousness; The agent responsible for an
individual’s thoughts and actions.
 The “self” is an intangible entity that directs a person’s thoughts and actions. It is outside the physical
realm.
2. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
 It is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social
systems.
 Socially constructed in a sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people.
3. SPIRITUAL/RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE
 It includes the person’s “purpose in life”, meaning and aspirations.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
 It is the cognitive and effective representation of one’s identity (behavior, emotion, thoughts).

PERSONALITY – Is referred to the set of behavior, feelings, thought and motives that identifies an individual.
 It is the embodiment of one’s physical, psychological, cognitive, affective, and spiritual self.

PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWPOINT – Personality refers to the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings,
thoughts and motives that characterize an individual.

RELATIVELY ENDURING – being consistent, over different situation and over time.

NATURE NURTURE

NATURE – heredity
 Genetic make up
NURTURE – environment

There is no single gene that creates a trait, it is always a complex combination of genes, enviro nmental exposure
and experiences and cultural backgrounds.

JOHARI WINDOW - Our primary goal is to minimize the blind spot/unknown area

Created by:

JOseph Luft (1916-2014)

And HARrington Ingham (1916-1995)
DOUBLE “R”

FIVE FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY

This is a set of five broad trait dimensions or domains often referred to as the “Big Five”
Developed by: Robert R. Mcrae / Paul T. Costa

CAN BE REMEMBERED AS:

O – penness – Imagination, feelings, actions, ideas

C – onscientiousness – Competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, goal-driven
E – xtravesion – Sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression
A – greeableness – Cooperative, Trustworthy, good-natured
N – euroticism - Tendency toward unstable emotion

MBTI (MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR)

Katherine C. Briggs / Isabel Briggs Myers – This personality model was based on four preferences of individuals namely:

INTROVERT VS EXTROVERT – Is how an individual prefers to channel his/her energy when dealing with people.
INTUITION VS SENSING – Is how one prefers information whether they deal with ideas, interpret and add meaning or
through the use of senses.
THINKING VS FEELING – Is how an individual prefers to make decisions, either using logic and analysis or using cognitive
senses based on values and beliefs.
JUDGEMENT VS PERCEPTION – Is how the individual prefer to manage one’s life, whether getting things, decided,
planned and organized or staying new and open to new information and options.

Each personality type has their own set of strengths and weaknesses that we can overcome.

MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI - is best-known for his theory of flow, which he outlined in his seminal 1990 book Flow: The
Psychology of Optimal Experience. According to Csikszentmihalyi, people are happy when they are in a state of flow, a
type of intrinsic motivation that involves being fully focused on the situation or task.

8 STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

 ERIK ERIKSON (15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) – Was a German-American developmental psychologist and
psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings.
 Developmental Stages in Middle and Late Adolescence
1. INFANCY (Birth – 18 mos.) – Parents – Trust vs Mistrust.
- Trust – being able to trust others when caregiver provide caring. +
- Mistrust – Mistrusting others, withdrawal or estrangement. -
2. EARLY CHILDHOOD (18 mos. – 3 yrs.) – Parents – Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt.
- Autonomy – Develops self-control and independence. An ability to cooperate and express self. +
- Shame/Doubt – Compulsive self-restraint. Defiance. Failure will result in shame and doubt. -
3. LATE CHILDHOOD (3-5 yrs.) – Parents and Teachers – Initiative vs Guilt.
- Initiative – Learns that assertiveness can influence their environment. +
- Guilt – Using too much power and control, might experience disapproval resulting in lack of self-
confidence and guilt. -
4. SCHOOL AGE (6-12 yrs) – Parents and Teachers – Industry vs Inferiority.
- Industry – Develops a sense of competence and perseverance. +
- Inferiority – Withdrawal from school and peers. -
5. ADOLESCENCE (12-20 yrs) – Parents, Teachers, and Significant others – Identity vs Role confusion.
- Identity – Stay true to oneself. +
- Role Confusion – Weak sense of self. Might result to rebellion. -
6. YOUNG ADULTHOOD (20-25 yrs.) – Friends – Intimacy vs Isolation.
- Intimacy – Develops strong relationships. +
- Isolation – Weak relationships. May result in isolation or loneliness. –
 7. ADULTHOOD (25-65 yrs.) – Community – Generativity vs Stagnation
- Generativity – Creativity, productivity, feeling of usefulness and accomplishment (concern for
others). +
- Self-indulgence, self-concern, lack of commitment. –
8. MATURITY (65 yrs. – death) – Community – Integrity vs Despair.
- Integrity – Sense of fulfillment as one looks back in one’s life. +
- Despair – Sense of loss, contempt for others. May result in regret, bitterness, despair. –

PRIVILAGE
 A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group.

 BIOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
- Adolescence begins with the first well-defined maturation event called puberty.
- Included in the biological challenges are the changes are the changes that occur due to the release of
the sexual hormones that affect emotions. Mood changes can increase, which can impact on
relationships both at home with parents and siblings and socially or at school.
 COGNITIVE CHALLENGES
- Learning through success and failure is part of the challenge of the learning process for the adolescent.
Adolescents are egocentric, they can become self-conscious; thinking they are being watched by others,
and at other times want to behave as if they were on a centre stage and perform for non-existent
audience.
 PSCHOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
- The psychological challenges that the adolescent must cope with are moving from childhood to
adulthood. A new person is emerging, where rules will change, maybe more responsibilities will be
placed on him/her so that a certain standard of behavior is now required to be maintained.
Accountability is becoming an expectation from both a parental and legal concept.
 PANDEMIC CHALLENGES
- When the pandemic ensued, life as we know it, became different. Drastic changes applied. Here comes
the “new normal.”
- Adolescents must adjust to this change and always stay safe. Face to face classes are suspended and
adolescents are forced to adapt in modular or online classes. This gravely affected (and is still affecting)
their well-being. Not to mention that some are actually forced to stop schooling.

DEALING WITH CHALLENGES

1. PHYSICAL CHANGES
HORMONES – “chemical messengers” Physical changes happen due to change in the teenager’s hormone levels.
2. EMOTIONAL CHANGES AND PROBLEMS
Hormones affect your teenager not only physically but also emotionally.
 Adolescence is the age between adulthood and childhood. Teenagers are often confused about their role
and are torn between their responsibilities as growing adults and their desires as children.
 They to feel overly emotional (blame in their hormones). Just about anything everything can make them
happy, excited, mad or angry.
 Adolescent girls are vulnerable to crying.
3. SUBSTANCE AND ABUSE
Teenagers are vulnerable and can be easily swayed to the wrong side. Substance abuse is one of the biggest
problems that parents of adolescents around the world have to deal with.
4. EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES
 School Demands
 Expectations
 Grades
 How this will affect your future
5. HEALTH PROBLEMS
 Adolescents are vulnerable emotionally and physically. Without proper nutrition and healthcare, they are
susceptible in illnesses.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
 Teenagers may have self-esteem or confidence issues.
 Depression
 Eating disorders
7. SOCIAL PROBLEMS – DATING AND REALTIONSHIPS
 This is the same time they start dating.
 Competition
 Sexual feelings and thoughts of sex may seem wrong to an adolescent, because of which they may feel
guilty.
8. SEXUAL HEALTH – UNPLANNED PREGNANCIES AND STIs
The development of secondary sexual characteristics during adolescence gives rise to new feelings in teenagers
and pushes them to experiment with their bodies.

ANTI-SOCIAL AND DELIQUENCY BEHAVIORS

The term ANTI-SOCIAL is massively misused.

ANTI-SOCIAL means that the person wants to inflict harm to other people through physical or psychological means. They
are known to be delinquent and guiltless.
- This is a personality disorder, a condition where a person disregards what is right or wrong, doesn’t have empathy and
ignores others feelings. It’s also characterized by manipulation and harsh treatment.

ASOCIAL means withdrawn from society; does not like socializing.

It’s very important to notice the difference between those two words, if someone wants to be alone, this doesn’t mean
that they’re antisocial, but they could just be asocial, or even an introvert.

STRESS
A reaction of the mind and body to stimulus that disturbs the well-being, state of clam or equilibrium of a person.

*Stress is unhealthy but this is not entirely the case.

SEVERAL POINTS OF VIEW ABOUT STRESS

STRESS AS A STIMULUS
Stress is caused by situations that may be life threatening or life changing. e.g. Moving into a new home, Having a new
job

STRESS AS A RESPONSE
The way the body reacts to challenging situations (stress hormone).

CHRONIC STRESS
Is the response to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period of time in which an individual perceives they have
little or no control.

STRESS AS RELATIONAL
Is when a person experiencing stress takes a step back to look at the situation that is causing stress and assesses it.

ASSESMENT
Positive Relevance – view the situation positively.
Negative Relevance – produce negative emotions leading to stress.
ASSESMENT example
Flight Delay
Positive – there must be a reason for the delay and I have no control over it.
Negative – blaming the airline or whoever is responsible.

PHYSIOLOGICAL

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYDROME

Consists of three stages:
1. Alarm stage
2. Resistance stage
3. Exhaustion stage

REPEAT!!!

HEALTHY STRESS

 EUSTRESS
A kind of stress that is considered as being beneficial to the people who experience it. E.g. speaking in front of
an audience, stage performance, sports.
- Motivates, focuses energy.
- Is short-term.
- Is perceived as within our coping abilities.
- Feels exciting.
- Improves performance.

KNOWING YOUR STRESSORS

Situations Thoughts
People Uncertainties
Experience Feelings

SEPERATION ANXIETY DISORDER (S.A.D.)

COPING – means to invest one’s own conscious effort, to solve personal and interpersonal problems, in order to try to
master, minimize or tolerate stress and conflict.

People differ in their coping styles. One may evaluate a situation as life-threatening but another person may not see it
that way.

PROBLEM FOCUSED - includes all the active efforts to manage stressful situations and alter a troubled person-
environment relationship to modify or eliminate the sources of stress via individual behavior.

EMOTIONAL FOCUSED – is used when a person has no capacity to deal with the source of the problem.

PROBLEM FOCUSED EMOTIONAL FOCUSED

 Talking more with the person concerned  Eating more or less
 Researching about the topic  Sleeping more or less
 Talking with friends about their opinion  Excessive playing of video games
 Strategizing  Crying, shouting, ranting
LIQUID WATER
 Occupies the 75% of the Earth approximately.
 Allows the existence of the first photosynthetic organism.
 Came from two sources: Volcanism and water that came from icy meteors.
 The Goldilocks zone.

HEAT SOURCE
 Drives the different systems that allows the Earth to support life.
 The four systems.
 Has two sources:
1. Internal heating of the Earth – Caused by radiogenic heat from the radioactive decay of materials.
2. Heat coming from the Sun. – In the form of radiation which enters the Earth.

ATMOSPHERE
 The presence of the atmosphere is caused by the gravity of the planet.
 Any planet devoid of atmosphere would have an average surface temperature below freezing.

EARTH SYSTEMS
Is Earth a closed, open or isolated system? Open

BIOSPHERE
 All life forms and even organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
 The interaction between the different subsystems is most dynamic.

HYDROSPHERE
 Totality of Earth’s water.
 Includes the cryosphere.

A greater appreciation for the fragility of the Earth is crucial for promoting environmental awareness, responsible
sustainable living practices. Recognizing the Earth’s vulnerability can lead to several positive outcomes:

Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with properties necessary to support life.

1. Environmental Conservation – When people understand how delicate and interconnected Earth’s ecosystem
are, they are more likely to support efforts to protect and conserve biodiversity.
- This includes preserving endangered species, protecting forests and wetlands, and reducing
pollution.
2. Climate change Mitigation: Appreciating the Earth's fragility can motivate individuals, communities, and nations
to take action to mitigate climate change. This may involve reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to
clean energy sources, and promoting sustainable transportation and land use.
3. Responsible Resource Use: Recognizing the finite nature of Earth's resources encourages sustainable practices.
This includes responsible consumption of water, minerals, and fossil fuels, as well as promoting recycling and
reducing waste.
4. Ecosystem Services: Understanding how ecosystems provide essential services such as clean air, clean water,
and pollination can lead to greater efforts to protect these ecosystems. A deeper appreciation for these services
underscores their importance to human well-being.
5. Global Cooperation: The fragility of the Earth's environment is a global issue. It necessitates international
operation and diplomacy to address challenges such as deforestation, ocean pollution, and the loss of
biodiversity greater appreciation for Earth's frailty can foster collaboration among nations.
6. Education and Advocacy: People who appreciate the Earth's vulnerability are more likely to engage in
environmental education and advocacy. They may support environmental organizations, participate in
conservation efforts, and advocate for sustainable policies.
 7. Personal Lifestyle Choices: A deeper Understanding of Earth's fragility can influence individual lifestyle dices.
This may include reducing one's carbon footprint, consuming more / locally and sustainably, and supporting
businesses and products with environmentally responsible practices.
8. Long-Term Thinking: An appreciation for Earth's vulnerability encourages a long-Term perspective. This means
making decisions that prioritize the health of the planet for future generations, rather than focusing solely on
short-term gains.
9. Environmental Justice: Recognizing Earth's fragility also highlights the importance of addressing environmental
injustices that disproportionately affect marginalized communities. It promotes equity in environmental
protection efforts.
10. Resilience and Adaptation: An appreciation for the Earth's fragility can motivate communities to build resilience
and adapt to environmental changes and challenges, whether they stem from climate change, natural disasters,
or other factors.

SO, WHAT IS AN IGNEOUS ROCK?

An igneous rock is a rock that has formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

A QUICK REVIEW...
• Igneous rocks form from cooled and solidified magma or lava.
• When magma cools slowly inside Earth, we get intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks with large crystals.
• When lava cools quickly at or near Earth's surface, we get extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks with small or no
crystals. These may be vesicular, meaning there are trapped gas bubbles.
• Page 6 of the ESRT shows common igneous rocks and their characteristics

The rocks change physically but not changing its composition.

The smaller pieces has the same minerals as the same proportions as the original.

ROCKS
We classify rocks based on how they formed.

Igneous rocks - formed from cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Magma - inside of the earth.

Lava - outside of the earth.

Igneous rock type

Intrusive - magma cools slowly.
- Large crystal form.
Extrusive - lava cools quickly.
- Small or no crystal form.
- may be vesicular.
- contains air bubbles.

Sendimentary Rocks
1. Clastic Sedimentary rocks - weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation.
2. Chemical “ “ - evaporation and precipitation chemicals sedimentation.
3. Organic “ “- It produces over time. - - - - - Originates on different living matter.

Metamorphic rocks
- Rocks are change as a result of exposure to intense heat or pressure.
Two types of metamorphisms
• contact metamorphism - heat.
• Regional metamorphism - pressure.
REMEMBER:
-Mechanical weathering increases the rate of Chemical weathering.
-Almost occur simultaneously
-When rocks breaks into smaller pieces the surface area of the pieces increases and if its exposed chemical weathering
can occur,

Chemical Weathering
The rock changes in composition.
One type of mineral into a different mineral.
Works through chemical reactions that cause the changes in the minerals

Chemical Weathering by Water

Change in the composition of minerals when they react with water

HYDROLYSIS
• Water dissolves ions from the mineral and carries them away.
Dissolution
Chemical Weathering by Oxygen
Oxidation
Reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water

Mechanical weathering
- Physical weathering
- Same structure.
- breaking down or dissolving of rocks.
- The rocks change physically but not changing its composition.
- The smaller pieces has the same minerals as the same proportions as the original.
- can be brought to different agents:
• FROST WEDGING - main form in any climate that regularly cycles above and below the
Freezing point.
• SALT CRYSTAL GROWTH - often occurs when ground water moves into empty pores of
Rocks by capillary action.
• ABRASION - wearing a way of rocks by constant collusion of loose particles.
- Strong winds - rough
- Moving water - smooth
- Gravity
- Ice and ice glaciers
- Mechanical weathering increases the rate of Chemical weathering. Almost occur simultaneously when rocks breaks
into smaller pieces the surface area of the pieces increases and if it’s exposed chemical weathering can occur,

Chemical Weathering - The rock changes in composition.

- One type of mineral into a different mineral.
- Works through chemical reactions that cause the changes in the minerals.

Chemical Weathering by Water

- Change in the composition of minerals when they react with water

HYDROLYSIS
• Water dissolves ions from the mineral and carries them away.
• Dissolution.

Chemical Weathering by Oxygen

- Oxidation
- Reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water.
Biological Activity - caused by living organisms.
- Growing plants roots
- Microbial activity
- Animals

Factors that Affect the Type, Extent, and Rate at which Weathering Takes Place:
Climate
- Cold and dry = slow rates of chemical weathering
- High temperatures and rainfall
- Chemical weathering
Rock Structure
- Rate is affected by joints, folds, etc.
- Highly-jointed/fractured = faster weathering
Topography
• Steep slope = faster weathering
Time
• Length of exposure to agents of weathering

EXOGENIC PROCESS

EROSION is the separation and removal of weathered and unweathered rocks and soil from its substrate.

TRANSPORT involves processes by which sediments are moved along from the source to where they are deposited.

WIND EROSION

Commonly occurs in flat, bare areas or dry, sandy and loose soils.
Wind erosion damages the land and natural vegetation.
EROSION BY GLACIER
• As a rock moves over a rock, the rocks and soil are scraped off and grinded against the mixture of ice and rocks.
Dominant in Polar Regions and in high altitude mountains.

EROSION BY WATER
Suspension - fine material such as clay and sediment is carried by the river.
Solution - disolved minerals are carried by the river.
Traction - large boulders and pebbles are rolled along the river bed.
Saltation - small stones, pebble and silt bounces along the river bed
• Rivers start as a small individual streams called as Tributaries.
• Erosion occurs outside of river bends and deposition occurs inside the meander.
• As the river enters the sea, it separates into many branches called Distributary channels.
• The sediments coming from rivers are also transported along the shoreline via Long shore drift.

MASS WASTING

Mass movement is the downslope movement of rock, soil, and ice due to gravity.

CLASSIFICATION OF MASS WASTING

• FALL includes the free-fall movement, bouncing and rolling of materials on a slope.
.A TOPPLE is the forward rotation out of the slope of a soil or rock mass.
A SLIDE is the downslope movement of coherent materials along a well-defined surface of rupture called sliding
surface.
SPREAD is the lateral extension and fracturing of a coherent mass.
• FLOW happens when the materials are saturated and move downslope as a viscous fluid.
Complex or combinations of several types of movement could

RELIEF- The difference in elevation between two places creates slopes; gravity pulls materials at higher elevation to
lower elevation.

SLOPE STABILITY - The balance between the downslope force caused by gravity and the resistance force due to
friction.

FRAGMENTATION and WEATHERING - Intact rock is held together by chemical bonds within minerals while a
fragmented rock is held only by friction.

CAUSES

VIBRATIONS FROM EARTHQUAKES OR BLASTING ACTIVITIES

CHANGES IN THE SLOPE ANGLE, LOAD AND ANGLE SUPPORT.
COMPOSITION OF THE MINERALS

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
> THERE IS ONLY CHANGES IN PHYSICAL
APPEARANCE AND NO CHANGES IN
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

-BLOCK
DISINTEGRATION
> ROCKS EXPANDS & CONTRACT
DUE TO CONTINOUS HEATING AND COOLING.

FROST WEATHERING
-> INCREASING-OF VOLUME OF WATER CAUSES THE ROCKS TO SPLIT INTO SMALL
PORTIONS.

COMPOSITE VOLCANO
• Located in the province of Zambales, Mt.
Pinatubo erupted in June 1991 after almost 600 years of being dormant.
• It was considered to be the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.
1992 Mt. Pinatubo eruption.
This photo was taken by Albert Garcia during their coverage in the area while they trying to escape in the midst of
this devastating chaos.
Won in the most prestigious "World Press
Photo Competition'
Awarded as Famous photo:
"Time Magazine"
"National Geographic”

COMPOSITE VOLCANO
• Mayon Volcano, found in the province of Albay, is an active volcano and is considered to be the world's most
perfectly-formed volcano for its symmetry.
• February 1, 1814 is Mt. Mayon's most destructive explosion. The town of Cagsawa was buried.
About 2,200 residents of Albay perished in the said eruption.
• Its recent eruption was last
January 2018.
CINDER CONE VOLCANO
• The simplest and most common type of volcano.
• Cinder cones have a flat top with a wide circular crater.
• Paricutin volcano, in the state of Michoacán, Mexico. It is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World and the
youngest volcano to form in the Northern Hemisphere.
• This volcano started to grow in a cornfield February of 1943.
• In just a matter of several days, this small volcano rose up to 50meters in height. Its eruption has affected over
7,000 people.

SHIELD VOLCANO
• Shield volcanoes are named for their shape. The flattened dome has gentle slopes that resemble the shape of a
curved shield.
• Mauna Loa is the world's largest active volcano.
• Its name means "Long Mountain" in Hawaiian.
• Mauna Loa's most recent eruption occurred from
March 24 to April 15, 1984.

Metamorphic Rocks

DEFORMATION
The process in which rocks change in shape, size, location, tilt, or break due to squeezing, stretching, or shearing.

Stress
• The force per unit area on a rock.
• It causes a material to change shape, deformation or strain.
• It depends on the type of rock, the surrounding temperature, and pressure conditions.
Rocks possible responses to stress
Elastic deformation
The rock returns to its original shape.
Plastic deformation
The rock does not return to its original shape.

Fracture
The rock breaks.
Types of Stresses
Compressional Stress
Tensional Stress
Shear Stress

Compressional Stress
• squeezes rocks together
• happens at convergent plate boundaries
• Two tectonic plates are plowing in each other
• Powerful earthquakes
Chile: Nazca and South American plates
Japan: Eurasian plate and Philippine plates

• Rocks deforming plastically crumble in folds

Three major types of rock folding.
• Monoclines
• Anticlines
• Synclines
Types of Rock Folding
Monocline
Anticline
Syncline

Changes in the Earth's Crust

Deformation - the bending, tilting, and breaking of Earth's crust; The change in shape of volume of rock in response
to stress.
Deformation can occur when the weight of some part of Earth's crust changes. Earth's crust is part of the lithosphere
These changes are a response to a stress in the rock.
Stress - the amount of force per unit area that acts on a rock
As Earth's lithosphere moves, or when tectonic plates collide these actions exert force on the rock called stress.
There are three types of stress: compression, tension, and shear stress.

Tensional Stress
• Extensional stress
• Stretches and pulls rocks apart
• Occurs along divergent plate boundaries
• Two tectonic plates are tearing away from one another.

Tension - a stress that stretches and pulls a body of rock apart.

When rocks are pulled apart by tension, the rocks tend to become thinner
Tension occurs at or near divergent boundaries

Shearing
• A distinct motion of two rock surfaces against each other.
• causes rocks to change shape as they slide against each other.
• causes minerals to split in a formation known as cleavage.

Shearing is the most common stress

Plate
Transform plate boundaries
Fracturing and Faulting

San Andreas in California: A Strike-slip fault

Shearing - pushes some of the crust in different directions

Compression - when two plates collided
Tension - causes the rocks to pull apart

Strain
Strain -
Caused by stress any change in a rock's shape or volume
When stress is applied slowly, the deformed rock may regain its original shape when the stress is removed.
Elastic rebound
The amount of stress that rock can withstand without permanently changing shape is limited.
If a stress exceeds the rock's limit, the rock's shape permanently changes.

Types of Permanent Strain

Brittle strain and ductile strain are types of permanent strain.
Materials that respond to stress by breaking or fracturing are brittle. Brittle strain appears as cracks and fractures.
Ductile materials respond to stress by bending or deforming without breaking. Ductile strain is a change in the
volume or shape of rock in which the rock does not crack or fracture.
Factors that Affect Strain
• The composition of rock determines where rock is ductile or brittle, but temperature and pressure also affect how
rock deforms.
• At lower temperature and pressure, rock is likely deform in a brittle way. At higher temperature and pressure, rock
will deform in a ductile way.

Folds
Bending, NO Break
Fold = a form of ductile strain in which rock layers bend, usually as a result of compression.
When rock deforms in a ductile way, folds form.
A fold is most easily observed where flat layers of rock were compressed or squeezed inward.
Although a fold commonly results from compression, it can also form as a result of shear stress.
Normal
Fold
Transform
Convergent
Strata

Anatomy of a Fold
Folds have several features by which they are described.
The sloping sides of a fold are called limbs
The limbs meet at the bend in the rock layers, which is called the hinge.
If both halves of a fold are symmetrical, then the fold has an axial plane.
The axial plane is a place that could slice the fold into two symmetrical halves.
If a fold is overturned it appears to be lying on its side

Types of Folds
To categorize a fold, scientists study the relative ages of the rocks in the fold.
Anticline - is a fold in which the oldest layer is in the center of the fold. Anticlines are commonly arch shaped

Syncline? Is a fold in which the youngest layer is in the center of the fold. Synclines are commonly bowl shaped
(Monocline) is a fold in which both limbs are horizontal or almost horizontal. Monoclines form when one part of
Earth's crust moves up or down relative to another part.
Step, Like

Sizes of Folds
Folds vary greatly in size. Some folds are small enough to be contained in a hand-held rock specimen.
Other folds cover thousands of square kilometers can be seen only from the air.
A large anticline may form a ridge which is a large, narrow strip of elevated land that can occur near mountains.
A large syncline may form a valley

Faults (crack, Fracture)

Fault – a break in a body of rock along which one block slides relative to another; a form of brittle strain.
Stress on rock can cause rock to break.
Breaks in rock along which there is no movement) of the surrounding rock is called a fracture.
A break along which the surrounding rock moves is called a fault.
The surface or plane along which the motion occurs is called the Fault plane.
In a non-vertical fault, the hanging wall is the rock above the fault plane.
(Diagonal)
The footwall is the rock below the fault plane.

Normal Faults
 A normal fault is a fault in which the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall.
Normal faults commonly form at divergent boundaries where the crust is being pulled apart by tension.
Normal Fault
Normal faults may occur as a series of parallel fault lines, forming steeps steplike landforms.

Reverse Faults
Convergent
When compression causes the hanging wall to move upward relative to the footwall, a reverse fault forms.
A thrust fault is a special type of reverse fault in which the fault plane is at a low angle or is nearly horizontal.
Reverse faults and thrust faults are common in steep mountain ranges, such as the
Rockies and the Alps.

Strike-Slip Faults -
Transform
In a strike-slip fault, the rock on either side of the fault plane slides horizontally in response to shear stress.
Strike-slip faults got their name because they slide, or slip, parallel to the direction of the length, or strike, of the
fault.
Strike-slip faults commonly occur at transform boundaries.

Sizes of Faults
Like folds, faults vary greatly in size. Some faults are so (small that they affect only a few layers of rock in a small
region.
Other faults are thousands of kilometers long and may extend several kilometers below Earth's surface.
Large faults that cover thousands of kilometers are composed of systems of many smaller, related faults.

PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY & SEAFLOOR
SPREADING

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift Theory

1. The Matching of Continents (that is
Jig-Saw-Fit)
2. Rocks of Same Age across the Oceans
3. Tillite
4. Placer Deposits
5. Distribution of Fossils

SEAFLOOR SPREADING
In the 1950s and 1960s, marine geologists used echo sounding to map ocean ridges.
Harry Hammond found out that magma oozed up from the Earth's interior along mid-ocean ridges and this
eventually solidified and formed a new seafloor.

EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

Basalts contain a small amount of magnetic minerals such as magnetite and hematite.
These minerals retain the magnetic signatures that reflect the magnetic field scenario during the time of their
formation.

THE NUMERICAL AGE OF ROCKS

The seafloor is the youngest in areas near the mid-oceanic ridge and becomes older as it goes farther away on either
side.
Thickness and age of sediments that were directly overlying the basalts in mid – oceanic ridges.
PLATE TECTONICS

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
Two plates move away from each other.
Along these boundaries, magma comes out from the center of the ridge and eventually solidifies into basalt.
As the plates pull apart, the lithosphere cracks, producing normal faults.

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-Atlantic ridge
The South American
Plate and the North
American Plate diverge from the African and
Eurasian plate.

TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
• Two plates slide past each other, resembling a strike-slip fault.
• Big strike-slip fault or
Transform fault.
• The crust is broken but no materials are created nor destroyed.
San Andreas Fault

Hydrometeorological hazard process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that

may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.

1. TROPICAL CYCLONE
A severe weather disturbance characterized by strong winds and heavy rains which revolve around a central low
pressure area.

HAZARDS: Strong winds

Floods
Storm surges
Heavy rains

FORMATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES

A natural phenomenon that is used by the Earth to attain balance or equilibrium

Names:
Indian Ocean &
Southwest Pacific - Cyclones
Atlantic Ocean - Hurricanes

Often found to form within the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ) where the northeast and southeast trade winds meet

BIRTH OF A TYPHOON
Typhoons start off from evaporation of water molecules from the scan then condenses to form clouds resulting in
rain showers
This cluster of clouds are areas of low pressure in the atmosphere.
When combine with warm ocean waters, they joined two of the key ingredients in transforming ordinary clouds into
deadly typhoons.
Converging winds alse help the movement of warm maist air from the ocean upward and contribute to the
circulation of a typhoon.
With an organized circulation, the law pressure area becomes a tropical depression.
As the tropical depression drifts, it may encounter areas of the scan where it is exceptionally warm. This will further
drive the increase of its circulation transforming it to a typhoon.
Forming the eye of the Typhoon
Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) strongest typhoon recorded
Typhoon Haiyan plowed through the Philippines with gusts of 235 miles per hour, leaving homes and buildings
destroyed.

TYPES OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

Characterized by the maximum sustained-wind speed
CATEGORY MAXIMUM WIND SPEEDKILOMETERS PER HOUR (kph)
Tropical Depression 64
Tropical Storm 118
Typhoon 200
Super typhoon Greater than 200

2. THUNDERSTORM
A violent, short weather disturbance that is almost always associated with lightning, thunder, dense clouds, heavy
rain or hail, and strong, gusty winds.

FORMATION OF THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms arise when layers of warm, moist air rise to cooler regions of the atmosphere.
The moisture condenses to form towering cumulonimbus clouds and, eventually precipitate.

Electrical charges accumulate on cloud particles (water droplets & ice). Lightning discharges occur when the
accumulated electric charge becomes sufficiently large.
Lightning heats the air it passes through so intensely and quickly that shock waves are produced; these shock waves
are heard as claps and rolls of thunder

3 FLDODS
An overflow of water onto normally dry land. The outpouring of a normally dry area caused by rising water in an
existing, waterway such as a river, stream, or drainage waterway.

A flood caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time generally less than 6 hours is called flash flood.
These are usually characterized by raging fast-moving water after heavy rains that rip through river beds, urban
streets, or mountain valleys sweeping everything before them.

4. STORM SURGE
A typical rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides.
Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide, which is defined as the water level rise due to the combination
of storm surge and the astronomical tide.

5. TORNADO
Locally brown as Ipo-ipo, having narrow funnel or cylindrical shaped, and intensely rotating columns of winds that
form during powerful thunderstorms and extend from the base of cumulonimbus cloud down to the Earth's surface.

6. MONSOON
A weather pattern

A. Southwest Monsoon (summer monsoon)

Locally called the Habagat. It is characterized by a strong, generally West are southwest breeze that is responsible
for bringing significant rainfall to the Asian subcontinent and to South and
East Asian
B. Northeast Monsoon (winter monsoon)
IS NORTHEAST MONSOON locally called the Amihan. This weather features a generally less strong. East or northeast
breeze that is cooler and drier, with prolonged periods of successive cloudless days.

7. EL NIÑO
A prolonged unusual warming of sea surface temperature in central and eastern equatorial
Pacific.
This natural phenomenon occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and lasts for nine months are two years
at most

It results to the warmer water concentrated in the west and colder water in the east.
El nine will most likely bring severe drought. It is believed that it causes stronger thunderstorm disturbance and
massive storms. It also causes the decrease in the population of some species.

8. LA NINA
La Niña is the opposite of El Niño.

It is a prolonged unusual cooling of sea temperatures in central and eastern equatorial Pacific that may last for 1-3
years.

In order to mitigate the hazards and wisher in your community, Hazard maps are used. It encourage everyone in the
community to take action to prevent a possible disaster or reduce its effects if it happens.

HAZARD MAP
A map that highlights areas that are affected by or are vulnerable to a particular hazard.
Normally created for natural hazards, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, flooding and tsunamis.

Hazard maps help prevent serious damage and deaths. Hazard maps are effective tools for promoting risk
awareness, for designing evacuation procedures and for deciding the locations of evacuation facilities and shelters.
Hazard maps should be easy to understand and easy to use for purposes of prompt evacuation, and users should be
aware of the limitations and uncertainties of the information they contain.

Exposure
Populations and societies need to be exposed to a hazard to be affected by it. Populations are often talked about as
being directly or indirectly affected. Direct effects include injury, illness, other health effects, evacuation and
displacement, and economic, social, cultural, and environmental damages. Indirect effects refer to additional
consequences over time that cause unsafe or unhealthy conditions from economic, infrastructure, social, or health
and psychological disruptions and changes.

Vulnerability
Vulnerability and capacity are made up of a wide range of physical, social, economic, and environmental factors, and
are closely tied to development
(12). Vulnerability is highly dependent on the context of the hazard, since it is shaped by the context's individual
factors and behaviours, history, politics, culture, geography, institutions, and natural processes. This can include
things such as land use, public infrastructure, the burden of disease in the population and previous exposure to
hazards.

Vulnerable:
People living in poverty
Women
Children and youth
Older people
People with disabilities
People with chronic illness or underlying health conditions
Migrants
Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples
Sexual minorities

STRATIGRAPHY
Combining this observational skills with the stratigraphic principles, the basic component of stratigraphy was
formed.
Stratified rocks are products of the sedimentary processes.
The sedimentary rocks normally form layers or stratifications, which represent periods of deposition of sediments.

The concept of the rock cycle is attributed to a

Scottish physician,
James Hutton
(1726-1797), who studied rocks and landscapes and coastlines throughout the British Isles.

UNIFORMITARIANISM
The physical processes occurring today also occurred at comparable rates in the immensely long past.
"The present is the key to the past."

Relative dating vs.

Absolute dating

RELATIVE DATE /AGE - Order in which events occurred.

ABSOLUTE AGE - Refers to the age in years.

LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
States that each rock laver or strata is older than the one above it.
So, the relative age of the rock or fossil is older if it is located farther down in the rock layers.

LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY

Suggests that all rock layers are originally laid down (deposited) horizontally and can later be deformed. This allows
us to infer that something must have happened to the rocks to make them tilted.

LAW OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS

States that if a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.

LAW OF LATERAL CONTINUITY

Suggests that all rock layers are laterally continuous and may be broken up or displaced by later events. This can
happen when a river or stream erodes a portion of the rock layers.

UNCONFORMITIES
Are simply gaps (missing data) in the rock record, these gaps could indicate a variety of processes. These are
surfaces of erosion and non-deposition that separate younger rocks from the older ones.

ANGULAR UNCONFORMITIES
Represented by an older group of rock layers has been tilted, eroded, and another younger set of rock layers were
deposited on top of this erosional surface.

NONCONFORMITIES
These types of unconformities usually indicate that a long amount of time has been eroded away before the
younger sedimentary rocks were deposited.
DISCONFORMITIES
An erosional surface between two sets of rock layers.
This makes disconformities difficult to recognize because the erosional surface is often very difficult to find.

PARACONFORMITY
A type of unconformity in which strata are parallel; no apparent erosion occurs and the surface of the unconformity
resembles a simple bedding plane.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

. Epochs- less than 10 million years
. Period- for 100 million years
. Era- hundreds of millions of years
. Eon- billions of years

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The relative dating of events, fossil assemblage, and radiometric dates are combined to produce a calibrated
geological time scale.

In life, the developmental stage is important from the time of prenatal to newborn babies, to adulthood. Some
aspect of life change very little over time while other aspects may change intensely.
The history of the earth is compared to our lives history Events in our life expand as we get older. This events are
tracking our age or how we mature as we get cider

Eons - the largest subdivision or interval in the geologic time scale which is hundreds of millions of duration

Phanerozoic eon - most recent

Eons are divided into smaller subdivisions called eras.
Phanerozoic eon - divided into
Cenozoic era, the most recent, Mesozoic era, and Paleozoic era
Precambrian eon - divided into
Proterozoic era, Achaean era, and Hadean era

Periods are further subdivided and it is called epoch

Significant events in the earth's history

HADEAN EON
'Hades'
During Hadean which came from the word Hades means "hell" believed to be the most chaotic due to the
bombardment of meteorites on earth causing severe volcanic eruptions. It was during this time when the ocean,
atmosphere and décor were formed together with the stabilization of the crust. It is believed to be the beginning of
the earth.
It was during this time when the ocean, atmosphere and décor were formed together with the stabilization of the
crust. It is believed to be the beginning of the earth.

ARCHAEAN ERA
Archaean Era was described as the time when the earth became warm.
Most of the earth was covered with water, methane gas occupied the atmosphere with little to no oxygen.
The abundance of this gas makes the atmosphere orange in color during this period. The formation of continents
was also begin. It is also believed that the origin of life especially the "prokaryotes" happen in this era.
PROTEROZOIC EON
Proterozoic Eon lasted almost half of the life of the earth. The atmosphere started to have oxygen making
multicellular organism called "eukaryotes" transformed.
Other multicellular animals also appeared and the continents started to drift away.

PALEOZOIC ERA
Paleozoic era. This time life begun to flourish in the sea.
This era is known as the
"Age of Invertebrates"
The fossils of the marine invertebrates which lived near shallow water were found to form in sedimentary layers.

DEVONIAN PERIOD
Devonian Period is also called
"The age of fishes".
Development of:
~ Amphibians and reptiles
Land plants like the marsh plants and giant ferns.
The fossils of the marine invertebrates which lived near shallow water were found to form in sedimentary layers.

MESOZOIC ERA
Mesozoic Era is also called “The Dinosaur
Age" This is only part of the history because this large creatures are already extinct and only becomes part of the
history.
CENOZOIC ERA
Cenozoic Era is also called
"The Age of mammals”
Volcanic eruptions took place on a large scale forming colossal flow of lava and basalt.
Warm blooded animal and other primordial animals roamed the land.
Stoned tools used that humans left marks on land.
WE ARE ON THIS PERIOD.