sustainability
Article
Response of Soil Aggregate Stability to Phosphorus, Nitrogen,
and Organic Fertilizer Addition: A Meta-Analysis
Xiaolan Liu 1 , Jigen Liu 2,3 , Jinquan Huang 1,2,3, *, Yanfei Chen 1 , Lu Zhang 1 , Yujie Qi 1 , Weiwen Li 1 and Yi Zhu 1
Citation: Liu, X.; Liu, J.; Huang, J.;
Chen, Y.; Zhang, L.; Qi, Y.; Li, W.;
Zhu, Y. Response of Soil Aggregate
Stability to Phosphorus, Nitrogen,
and Organic Fertilizer Addition: A
Meta-Analysis. Sustainability 2023, 15,
10601. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su151310601
Academic Editor: Teodor Rusu
Received: 15 May 2023
Revised: 22 June 2023
Accepted: 3 July 2023
Published: 5 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310601
1 College of Resources and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China;
202072545@yangtzeu.edu.cn (Y.Q.)
2 Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute of Yangtze River Water Resources Commission,
Wuhan 430010, China
3 Mountain Flood Geological Disaster Prevention Engineering Technology Research Center,
Ministry of Water Resources, Wuhan 430010, China
* Correspondence: jinquan_cky@163.com or hjq@hnu.edu.cn
Abstract: Soil is a highly significant resource for human survival, and agglomerates, as the basic unit
of the soil structure, not only enhance the soil fertility and control the biological validity of nutrients
but also strengthen the soil’s erosion resistance. The mass application of fertilizers may significantly
affect crop growth and the soil structure, and the rational application and dispensing of fertilizers
will be an urgent issue to be addressed. Therefore, the effect of fertilizer application on the stability of
water-stable soil aggregates needs to be studied under different meteorological and soil conditions
to draw more general and feasible conclusions. Our meta-analysis of data from 220 independent
observations from 56 published studies found that fertilizer application increased the mean weight
diameter (MWD) by an average of 18% compared to the no-fertilizer treatment. Among the nitrogen
(N), phosphate (P), and organic (OM) fertilizer treatments, the organic fertilizer treatment had a more
significant stimulatory effect on the MWD (26%). Among the different fertilizer levels, a low level of
phosphorus (<40 kg·ha−1 yr−1 ), a high level of N (>120 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ), and a low level of organic
fertilizer (<5000 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ) increased the MWD by 19%, 14%, and 41%, respectively. Across the
soil types and land use types, the response to the MWD was positive for red soils and paddy fields,
and the organic fertilizer’s stimulatory effect was more significant than that of the chemical fertilizer.
The correlation analysis showed that the response rate of the MWD was negatively correlated with the
response rate of the soil pH and bulk density (BD) and positively correlated with the response rate of
the soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial mass carbon (MBC). Meanwhile, the partial least square
structural equation model (PLS-SEM) showed that the meteorological factors were the main factors
affecting the stability of the soil aggregates, while the secondary factors were the soil’s physical and
chemical properties. Therefore, this study found that the long-term use of organic fertilizer instead of
partial fertilizer is better than the use of chemical fertilizer alone, while more attention should be paid
to the influence of temperature and rainfall on the stability of fertilizer in aggregate soil in the future.
Keywords: phosphorus fertilizer; nitrogen fertilizer; organic fertilizer; mean weight diameter;
meta-analysis; PLS-SEM
1. Introduction
Due to the influence of economic development and human activities in society, land
degradation and soil drought have become increasingly significant issues affecting economic
growth, social development, and rural production. Climate change and agricultural activities
are likely to be the leading causes of these problems [1]. In the meantime, China’s massive
demand for food has created an urgent need to improve land quality, while land degradation
is closely related to agricultural activities, among which fertilization is one of the main reasons.
For example, common agricultural practices often lead to the misuse of chemical fertilizers,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 2 of 15

which damage the structure of soil aggregates and soils and waste soil nutrients [2]. Therefore,
it is vital to improve soil quality to enhance agricultural production.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a crucial index of soil fertility, and soil organic carbon
content changes affect soil aggregation. Soil organic carbon is closely related to the for-
mation and stability of soil aggregates [3]. It was reported that soil organic carbon avoids
microbial decomposition via adsorption onto the surface of clay minerals and encapsulation
in soil aggregates. As an essential component of the soil structure, soil aggregates are the
material basis of a good soil structure and not only directly or indirectly affect the soil
fertility and crop yield [4] but also increase the stability of the soil aggregates that can
improve the soil carbon sink function and reduce greenhouse gas emissions [5]. There
are many indicators for evaluating the stability of soil aggregates, among which the mean
weight diameter (MWD) has long been used as an indicator of soil aggregate stability, and
when the value of the MWD is higher, it indicates that the stability of the soil aggregates
is better [6,7]. The stability, particle size, and quantity distribution of soil aggregates are
affected by the fertilization type, fertilization level, soil properties, and climatic conditions.
Many papers published in China and elsewhere have shown that the decomposing residues
of fertilizers after application could stimulate microbial activity, forming mycelium and
sugars, and that soil particles would then be cemented by these substances to form soil
aggregates [8,9]. The formation of soil aggregates is driven by physical, chemical, and
biological factors, with cementing agents being the main formation condition. It had been
suggested by Tisdall et al. [3] that large agglomerates were mainly formed by the gelling of
mycelium and organic residues, while small agglomerates were formed by the gelling of
either polysaccharides or inorganic colloids through cationic bridges.
The use of chemical fertilizers plays a significant role in agricultural output. Adding
organic matter to agrarian fertilizer can help improve the soil structure, decrease the bulk
density, and affect the soil aggregates’ stability [10]. Fertilizer application has different
effects on soil aggregates. Some studies [11,12] showed that long-term fertilizer application
can increase the number of macro-aggregates, although others [13,14] reported no signif-
icant effect of fertilizer application on the number of macro-aggregates. Different types
of fertilizer applications also have different effects on soil agglomerates. Tian et al. [15]
found that organic fertilizer alone replenished the soil nutrients and increased soil the
macro-agglomerate content and water stability compared to organic–inorganic mixed
treatments. Ma et al. [16] showed that the soil water-stable agglomerates’ mean weight
and geometric mean diameter were significantly higher in organic fertilizer treatments
than in organic-inorganic fertilizer blends and inorganic fertilizer treatments. Li et al. [17]
showed that applying organic fertilizer promoted the formation of large agglomerates,
while using chemical fertilizer and organic fertilizer increased the agglomerates’ organic
carbon and total nitrogen content in the whole soil and at all the grain levels. Additionally,
Řezáčová et al. [18] showed that the application of organic fertilizer alone for four and eight
consecutive years was beneficial in improving the stability of soil aggregates. Overall, the
fertilizer treatments increased the soil’s mean weight diameter compared to the treatments
without fertilizer. Therefore, it is essential to explore the role of proper fertilizer application
in relation to the soil quality and stability of soil agglomerates. In recent years, most studies
on fertilizer application on soil aggregates have focused on the effect of fertilizer application
on the nutrient content of soil aggregates and its dynamics and soil aggregate stability [19].
However, there needs to be a detailed description of the mechanism of the effect of a
single fertilizer application on soil aggregate stability. Therefore, the research literature on
changes in soil agglomerate stability under long-term fertilizer application trials in China
was systematically collected in this report. A meta-analysis was used to quantitatively
estimate the magnitude of the increase or decrease in the soil agglomerate stability changes
by a single fertilizer application to analyze and explore the variability between the extent of
the increase or decrease under different conditions. The study aims to elucidate the role of
single fertilizer application on the formation of water-stable agglomerates and to provide a
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 3 of 15

scientific basis for the rational cultivation of the soil, improvement of the soil structure, and
reduction of global warming and carbon cycling.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Compilation
Peer-reviewed journal articles were searched using the Web of Science (WOS), Wan-
fang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases. The following
search term combinations were used to select the studies: (fertilization and aggregates/soil
macro-aggregate or aggregate/nitrogen fertilizer or phosphate fertilizer or organic fertil-
izer) and (fertilizer and aggregates/fertilizer/aggregates/nitrogen fertilizer and aggre-
gates/phosphorus fertilizer and aggregates/organic fertilizer and aggregates) and (nitrogen
fertilizer/phosphate fertilizer/organic fertilizer/organic fertilizer/organic fertilizer). The
literature on the “single fertilization and aggregate soil stability” themes was selected
and collected. To improve the data quality, the literature was screened according to the
following criteria: (i) the experiment must be a long-term positioning experiment or a field
experiment; (ii) the test must include a control (such as no fertilization) and a treatment
(such as a single application of phosphate fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, organic fertilizer,
etc.), and any other test conditions must be consistent with the control and treatment; (iii)
the mean value, standard deviation (SD) or standard error (SE) and sample size (n) of
the variables in the papers, tables, and digital charts must be able to be directly extracted;
(iv) the paper must have the stability index of the soil aggregates: mean weight diameter
(MWD) data, and (v) the test site must be located in China.
The dataset included 220 independent observations from 56 published studies
(Figure 1). Here, we considered data concerning different fertilization types, fertilization
levels, soil types, and land use types in the same experiment as independent observations
(Table 1). The GetData (version 2.20) software was used to extract the data from the dig-
itized graph in the paper. Overall, our data set covers different fertilization types, such
as phosphate, nitrogen, and organic fertilizers; different soil types, such as black soil, red
soil, and yellow soil; and different land use types, such as arable land, farmland, and
garden land. The P addition levels varied from 6.0 to 1444 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 , the N addition
levels ranged from 4.5 to 1558 kg·ha−1 yr−1 , and the OM addition levels varied from 13.0
to 225,000 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 . Therefore, according to the data, the horizontal gradients of a
single application of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizer were set as >120, 80–120, 40–80, and
<40 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 , while the horizontal angles of the organic fertilizer were set as >15,000,
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
10,000–15,000, 5000–10,000, and <5000 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 . Moreover, the rainfall ranged from
120 to 1795 mm. The annual temperature ranged from −1.11 to 19.2 ◦ C.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Locations
Locations of the study
study sites
sites in
inthis
thismeta-analysis.
meta-analysis.

Table 1. Data groups used in the meta-analysis.

Type of Fer- P Addition Level N Addition Level OM Addition Level

Soil Type Type of Land Use
tilization (kg∙ha−1∙yr−1) (kg∙ha−1∙yr−1) (kg∙ha−1∙yr−1)
Black soil Cultivated land P >120 (high level) >120 (high level) >15,000 (high level)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 4 of 15

Table 1. Data groups used in the meta-analysis.

Type of Type of P Addition Level N Addition Level OM Addition Level

Soil Type
Land Use Fertilization (kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ) (kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ) (kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 )
Black soil Cultivated land P >120 (high level) >120 (high level) >15,000 (high level)
10,000–15,000
Red soil Paddy field N 40–80 (low level) 80–120 (medium level)
(medium level)
Yellow soil Garden OM <40 (lowest level) 40–80 (low level) 5000–10,000 (low level)
<40 (lowest level) <5000 (lowest level)

2.2. Meta-Analysis
We followed the methods that Zhou et al. [20] used to evaluate the responses of the
MWD to P, N, and OM addition. In brief, it involved the use of MetaWin 2.1 software for
the purpose of calculation. The response ratio (RR, natural log of the ratio of the mean
value of a concerned variable in the P, N, and OM addiction treatment to that in the control)
was used here as an index of the magnitude of the P, N, and OM addition effect. The RR
was calculated as follows:
lnXt
RR = = lnXt − lnXc (1)
lnXc
where Xt and Xc are the means of a particular variable in the P, N, or OM addition and
control treatments, respectively. If an RR > 0 indicates that the single fertilization has a
positive response to the response variable, the single fertilization will improve the MWD.
The following equation estimated its variance (v):

SDt SDc
v(RR) = 2
+ (2)
Nt Xt Nc X2c

where Nt and Nc are the numbers of fertilized and unfertilized samples, SDc √and SDt are
the variances of the control and treatment groups, respectively, and (SD = SE N).
MetaWin 2.1 software was used to calculate the response ratio, and then the random
effects model was used to calculate the average weighted response ratio (RR++ ):

∑m k
i=1 ∑j=1 ωij RRij
RR++ = (3)
∑m k
i=1 ∑j=1 ωij

The calculation formula of the weighted standard error (S) is as follows:

s
1
S(RR++ ) = (4)
∑m
i=1 ∑kj=1 ωij

The 95% confidence interval (95%CI) can be calculated as follows:

95%CI = RR++ ± 1.96S(RR++ ) (5)

where i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m; j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k; m is the number of groups, and k is the number

of comparisons in group i. If the RR++ is positive, it is a positive response; otherwise, it is a
negative response.
When the confidence interval included 0, the P, N, or OM addition of the MWD was
insignificant (p > 0.05). When all the confidence intervals were more significant than 0,
adding P, N, or OM significantly increased the MWD (p < 0.05). In contrast, adding P, N,
and OM significantly decreased the MWD (p < 0.05).
We mainly used a partial least square structural equation model to analyze the causal
relationship between the meteorological and soil physical and chemical indexes and the
MWD. The partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) is a partial least
squares-based analysis of variance method. An iterative estimation combining a principal
 We mainly used a partial least square structural equation model to analyze the cau
relationship between the meteorological and soil physical and chemical indexes and
MWD. The partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) is a partial le
squares-based analysis of variance method. An iterative estimation combining a princi
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 component analysis with a multiple regression is also a causal modeling 5 ofmethod.
15 T
principle is to assume causality in a set of latent variables that can be represented se
rately by a group of observed variables. It usually includes some basic linear regress
models and
component manywith
analysis observed variables.
a multiple Technically,
regression verifying
is also a causal the covariance
modeling method. The between
principle
observed is to assume causality
variables makes itin possible
a set of latent variables that
to estimate the can be linear
basic represented separately
regression model’s co
by a group
ficient of observed
values variables.
(NFI, SRMR, andIt ꭓusually includes
2), thus some testing
statistically basic linear regression
whether models mode
the assumed
and many observed variables. Technically, verifying the covariance between the observed
suitable. If appropriate, our relationship model can be considered reasonable [21].
variables makes it possible to estimate the basic linear regression model’s coefficient values
(NFI, SRMR, and χ2 ), thus statistically testing whether the assumed model is suitable. If
3. Results our relationship model can be considered reasonable [21].
appropriate,
3.1. Response of MWD to P, N, and OM Addition
3. Results
The weighted
3.1. Response of MWD toRR of and
P, N, theOM
MWD across all 220 pairs of comparisons was 0.1836 (18
Addition
p < The
0.05)weighted
(Figure RR 2a,b). Application
of the MWD across ofall
phosphorus, nitrogen, and
220 pairs of comparisons was organic fertilizer sign
0.1836 (18.45,
pcantly
< 0.05)(p < 0.05)
(Figure increased
2a,b). the MWD
Application by 11%, 9%,
of phosphorus, and 26%,
nitrogen, respectively.
and organic fertilizerAmong
signif- them,
effect (p
icantly of <the organic
0.05) fertilizer
increased the MWD on the MWD
by 11%, 9%,was
andmore significant (Figure
26%, respectively. Among 2b).them,The P ad
the effect
tion of the organic
increased the MWDfertilizer on theand
by 19% MWD 9%was(p <more
0.05)significant (Figureand
at the lowest 2b).low
ThePP treatme
addition
(Figureincreased
3a). Thethe MWDMWDincreased
by 19% and by9%14%(p <and
0.05)14%
at the(plowest and
< 0.05) atlow
thePmedium
treatmentsand high
(Figure 3a). The MWD increased by 14% and 14% (p < 0.05) at the medium and high N
treatments (Figure 3b). Meanwhile, the OM addition increased the MWD by 41%, 2
treatments (Figure 3b). Meanwhile, the OM addition increased the MWD by 41%, 25%,
11%, and 13% (p < 0.05) at the lower, low, medium and high OM treatments (Figure 3c
11%, and 13% (p < 0.05) at the lower, low, medium and high OM treatments (Figure 3c).

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Frequency
Frequency distribution
distribution of theof the response
response ratios ofratios of the
the mean mean
weight weight(MWD),
diameter diameter (MWD), p
panel
(a).The
(a). The weighted
weighted response
response ratiosratios
of theof the weight
mean mean weight
diameterdiameter (MWD),
(MWD), panel panel
(b), to (b), to
different different ty
types
of fertilization. The red line indicates Gaussian curve fitting. The numbers are the numbers of data
points (n). The * symbol indicates statistical significance (p < 0.05).

3.2. Differences between Soil Aggregate Stability under Different Soil Types and Land Use Types
The addition of P, N, or OM did not significantly (p > 0.05) increase or decrease the
MWD in black soil (Figure 4a). On the contrary, the addition of P, N, or OM had a significant
(p < 0.05) positive effect on the increase in the MWD in red soil (Figure 4b). Additionally,
adding organic fertilizer increased the MWD more than phosphorus and nitrogen, which
were 44%, 17%, and 14%, respectively. Furthermore, only the addition of organic fertilizer
significantly (p < 0.05) increased the MWD by 30% in yellow soil (Figure 4c). In general,
adding P, N, or OM in red soil increased the MWD more than in black and yellow soil.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o

Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 of fertilization. The red line indicates Gaussian curve fitting. The numbers are the6numbers
of 15 of d
points (n). The * symbol indicates statistical significance (p < 0.05).

Figure3.3.The
Figure The weighted
weighted response
response ratiosratios
of theof the weight
mean mean weight
diameterdiameter
(MWD) to(MWD)
differenttofertilization
different fertilizat
additionlevels
addition levels
in in
thethe N P(a),
N (a), (b),P and
(b),OM
and(c)OM (c) treatments.
treatments. The numbers
The numbers are theofnumbers
are the numbers data of d
points(n).
points (n). The
The * symbol
* symbol indicates
indicates statistical
statistical significance
significance (p < 0.05).
(p < 0.05).

3.2. In terms of the

Differences land use
between Soiltypes, the MWD
Aggregate response
Stability underin Different
the paddySoil
field (weighted
Types RR: Use Ty
and Land
0.27, p < 0.05) was significantly greater than those in the garden (weighted RR: 0.18, p < 0.05)
The addition
and cultivated of P, N, or
land (weighted RR:OM did
0.16, p <not significantly
0.05) (Figure 4d–f).(pThe
> 0.05) increase
addition or decrease
of organic
MWD in
fertilizer black soil (p
significantly (Figure
< 0.05)4a). On the
increased thecontrary,
MWD more thethan
addition of P, N,
phosphorus andornitrogen,
OM had a sig
which
icant were 27%, 12%,
(p < 0.05) and 9%
positive in cultivated
effect land (Figure
on the increase 4d),
in the respectively.
MWD The addition
in red soil (Figure 4b). Ad
of P, N, or adding
tionally, OM had organic
a significant (p < 0.05)
fertilizer positivethe
increased effect
MWDon the increase
more thaninphosphorus
the MWD in and nit
the paddy field (Figure 4e). Furthermore, the addition of organic fertilizer significantly
gen, which were 44%, 17%, and 14%, respectively. Furthermore, only the addition of
(p < 0.05) increased the MWD by 17%, while the addition of N mainly (p < 0.05) decreased
ganic fertilizer significantly (p < 0.05) increased the MWD by 30% in yellow soil (Fig
the MWD by 241% in the garden (Figure 4f).
4c). In general, adding P, N, or OM in red soil increased the MWD more than in black a
3.3. The Correlations
yellow soil. of the Responses of the MWD with Meteorological and Soil Factors
A linear relationship was found between the RR of the MWD and the mean annual
precipitation (MAP) (r = 0.2133, p = 0.0044) and mean annual temperature (MAT) (r = 0.1535,
p = 0.0484). When the MAP and MAT were close to 434 mm and 3.7 °C, respectively, P, N,
or OM addition had the most potent stimulating effect on the RR of the MWD (Figure 5a,b).
The RR of the MWD exhibited significant negative relationships with the RR of the pH
(Figure 6a, r = −0.5717, p = 0.0068) and bulk density (BD, Figure 6b, r = −0.2962, p = 0.0005),
and significant positive relationships with the RR of the soil organic carbon (SOC, Figure 6c,
r = 0.2054, p = 0.0364) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC, Figure 6d, r = 0.5397, p = 0.0208).
Moreover, the RR of the MWD was positively (r = 0.4671, p = 0.0438) correlated with the soil
pH (Figure 6e) and showed a negative linear relationship (r = −0.3648, p = 0.0162) with the
BD (Figure 6f). In addition, the RR of the MWD exhibited significant positive associations
with the SOC (Figure 6g, r = 0.2143, p = 0.0323), and a negative linear relationship was
found between the RR of the MWD and the MBC (r = −0.5187, p = 0.0476), exhibiting a
downward trend with an increasing MBC (Figure 6h).
 Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 7 of 15

Figureresponse
Figure 4. The weighted 4. The weighted
ratios of response
the mean ratios
weightofdiameter
the mean weighttodiameter
(MWD) different (MWD)
P, N, andto differen
OM fertilizer
OM fertilizer addition levels in addition
black soillevels insoil
(a), red black
(b),soil (a), red
yellow soil soil (b), yellowland
(c), cultivated soil (d),
(c), paddy
cultivated land
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW field (e) and garden (f). The numbers are the numbers of data
field (e) and garden (f). The numbers are the numbers of data points (n). The * symbol indicates points (n). The * symbo
statistical significance (p < 0.05).
statistical significance (p < 0.05).

In terms of the land use types, the MWD response in the paddy field (wei
0.27, p < 0.05) was significantly greater than those in the garden (weighted RR
0.05) and cultivated land (weighted RR: 0.16, p < 0.05) (Figure 4d–f). The addi
ganic fertilizer significantly (p < 0.05) increased the MWD more than phosphor
trogen, which were 27%, 12%, and 9% in cultivated land (Figure 4d), respect
addition of P, N, or OM had a significant (p < 0.05) positive effect on the incre
MWD in the paddy field (Figure 4e). Furthermore, the addition of organic fertili
icantly (p < 0.05) increased the MWD by 17%, while the addition of N mainly
decreased the MWD by 241% in the garden (Figure 4f).

3.3. The Correlations of the Responses of the MWD with Meteorological and Soil Facto
A linear relationship was found between the RR of the MWD and the me
precipitation (MAP) (r = 0.2133, p = 0.0044) and mean annual temperature (M
0.1535, p = 0.0484). When the MAP and MAT were close to 434 mm and 3.7 ℃, res
P, N, or OM addition had the most potent stimulating effect on the RR of the MW
5a,b). The RR of the MWD exhibited significant negative relationships with the
Figure5.5.Relationships
Figure Relationships of theof
pH (Figure response
6a, = ratio
therresponse of mean
−0.5717, p =weight
ratio of diameter
mean
0.0068) weight
and (MWD)
bulk with the(MWD)
diameter
density mean annual
(BD, with
Figure 6b,the
r =me
−0
precipitation (MAP), panel (a) and mean annual temperature (MAT), panel (b). The red line indicates
precipitation (MAP),
0.0005), panel (a) and mean
and significant positiveannual temperature
relationships (MAT),
with the panel
RR of the soil(b). The car
organic red
a linear correlation.
Figure 6c, r = 0.2054, p = 0.0364) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC, Figure 6d,
cates a linear correlation.
3.4. Path Analysis p =of0.0208). Moreover,
Influencing Factors ofthe
theRR
MWDof the MWD was positively (r = 0.4671, p = 0.0438)
Response
This study with
used the soil pH (Figure
the PLS-SEM model to 6e)analyze
and showed
the soilaaggregate
negative linear relationship
stability response (r = −0
influencing factors to adding P, N, and organic fertilizer. The fitting parametersexhibited
0.0162) with the BD (Figure 6f). In addition, the RR of the MWD of the signifi
itive associations with the SOC (Figure 6g, r = 0.2143,
conceptual model were all within the target range, which proved that the model data p = 0.0323), and a nega
were reliable. The relationship was found
results showed thatbetween
the soilthepH,RR of the
soil MWD
organic and the
carbon MBCmean
(SOC), (r = −0.5187, p
annual temperature exhibiting
(MAT),amean
downward
annualtrend with
rainfall an increasing
(MAP), MBC
bulk density (Figure
(BD), 6h).
and microbial
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 8 of 15

biomass carbon (MBC) all had specific effects on the stability of the soil aggregates (MWD)
Figure 5. Relationships
(standardized of the(SPC),
path coefficient response
SPCratio of mean
= 0.334, 0.352, −
0.010,weight diameter (MWD)
0.319, 0.064, with
0.177). In the me
addition to the(MAP),
precipitation MAP’s adverse
panel (a)effects
andonmean
the MWD,
annual BD,temperature
and SOC, other paths had
(MAT), panelpositive
(b). The red
results.
cates In short,
a linear the meteorological factors had a more significant impact on the stability of
correlation.
the soil aggregates, and the soil factors were secondary factors (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Relationships of the response ratio of the mean weight diameter (MWD) with the response
Figure 6. Relationships of the response ratio of the mean weight diameter (MWD) with the
ratio of the pH (panel (a)), the response ratio of the bulk density (BD, panel (b)), the response ratio of
ratio of the pH (panel (a)), the response ratio of the bulk density (BD, panel (b)), the resp
the soil organic carbon (SOC, panel (c)), the response ratio of the microbial biomass carbon (MBC,
of the soil organic carbon (SOC, panel (c)), the response ratio of the microbial biomass carb
panel (d)), pH (panel (e)), BD (panel (f)), SOC (panel (g)) and MBC (panel (h)). The red line indicates
panel
a linear(d)), pH (panel (e)), BD (panel (f)), SOC (panel (g)) and MBC (panel (h)). The red line
correlation.
a linear correlation.

Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601
perature (MAT), mean annual rainfall (MAP), bulk density (BD), and microbial bioma
carbon (MBC) all had specific effects on the stability of the soil aggregates (MWD) (stan
ardized path coefficient (SPC), SPC = 0.334, 0.010, 0.352, −0.319, 0.064, 0.177). In additi
to the MAP’s adverse effects on the MWD, BD, and SOC, other paths had positive resul
In short, the meteorological factors had a more significant impact on the stability
9 of 15 of t
soil aggregates, and the soil factors were secondary factors (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Relationships between factors: path coefficients are represented by numbers near the arrows.
Figure 7. Relationships between factors: path coefficients are represented by numbers near the
The solid line means the path coefficient is significant (p < 0.05), while the dashed line means the path
rows. The solid line means the path coefficient is significant (p < 0.05), while the dashed line mea
coefficient is not substantially effective (p > 0.05). Negative and positive effects are indicated by red and
the path coefficient is not substantially effective (p > 0.05). Negative and positive effects are indicat
black arrows, respectively. NFI, SRMR, and χ2 are the model-fitting parameters of the PLS-SEM.
by red and black arrows, respectively. NFI, SRMR, and ꭓ2 are the model-fitting parameters of t
PLS-SEM.
4. Discussion
4.1. Response of MWD to P, N, and OM Addition
4. Discussion
Based on 220 independent observations, the soil and climate responses to P, N or OM
addition
4.1. wereof
Response examined.
MWD to The
P, N,potential
and OMmechanisms
Addition by which soil and climate factors
regulate P-, N-, or OM-induced changes in the MWD were discussed. The results of the
Based onshowed
meta-analysis 220 independent observations,
that the addition of P, N ortheOMsoilhad
anda climate
significant responses
effect onto P, N or O
the
addition were examined.
MWD, indicating The potential
that the addition of P, N or mechanisms
OM affected the bysoil
which soil and
structure andsoil
climate factors re
quality.
ulate P-, N-, or
This outcome is OM-induced
consistent withchangesthe resultsin the MWD were
of previous studiesdiscussed.
[22,23]. ThisThe isresults
because of the me
analysis
the input showed
of nitrogen that the addition
fertilizer, phosphate of fertilizer,
P, N or andOMorganic
had a fertilizer
significant effectmany
provides on the MW
available carbon
indicating sources
that the and nutrient
addition of P, Nelements
or OM for microorganisms
affected in the soil,
the soil structure improving
and soil quality. Th
the effectiveness
outcome of the substrates.
is consistent with the In addition,
results the soil microenvironment
of previous studies [22,23].and Thisphysical and the inp
is because
chemical properties will be changed, which may affect the soil aggregates’ stability.
of nitrogen fertilizer, phosphate fertilizer, and organic fertilizer provides many availab
The stability of soil aggregates is highly dependent on the type and extent of the
carbon
fertilizersources and For
application. nutrient elements
the different for microorganisms
fertilizer types, our study showedin the soil, improving
that P, N, or OM the effe
tiveness of the substrates.
fertilizer treatments In addition,
significantly increased the soil microenvironment
the MWD, with the OM greatlyand physical
expediting theand che
ical properties will be changed, which may affect the soil aggregates’
increase in the MWD, which is consistent with the results of Hati et al. [24]. The reason for stability.
the difference may be
The stability ofthat
soilorganic fertilizer
aggregates providesdependent
is highly sufficient carbon
on the andtypenutrients for the of the f
and extent
growth and reproduction of microorganisms and produces a
tilizer application. For the different fertilizer types, our study showed that solid positive incentive effect,
P, N, or O
thus affecting the stability of soil aggregates. Wang et al. [25] found that long-term treatment
fertilizer treatments significantly increased the MWD, with the OM greatly expediting t
with manure significantly enhanced the tendency of water-stable micro-agglomerates to
increase in the MWD, which is consistent with the results of Hati et al. [24]. The reason f
aggregate into water-stable macro-aggregates. Zhang et al. [26] and Karami et al. [27] also
the
founddifference may be
that combining that organic
fertilizer fertilizer
and organic provides
fertilizer sufficient
significantly carbontheand
increased MWD nutrients f
the
valuegrowth and reproduction
of soil aggregates. Moreover, of some
microorganisms
studies reportedandthat produces a solid
the stability positive
of >0.25 mm incenti
effect, thus affecting
soil aggregates the stability
under organic fertilizerof soil aggregates.
treatment was greater Wang et al.
than that of [25] found
nitrogen that long-ter
fertilizer
alone. This may
treatment withbemanure
because organic manuresenhanced
significantly increase thetheroletendency
of soil organic cement in the micro-a
of water-stable
agglomeration
glomerates toprocess
aggregate and into
boostwater-stable
soil aggregatemacro-aggregates.
formation [28]. Zhang et al. [26] and Kara
In addition, P and N fertilizers alone also contributed significantly to the stability
et al. [27] also found that combining fertilizer and organic fertilizer significantly increas
of the soil aggregates, probably owing to the enhancement of soil microbial activity and
the MWDbreakdown
enhanced value of soil aggregates.
of organic matterMoreover,
by applyingsome studiesorreported
phosphorus nitrogen that the stability
fertilizers,
respectively. It has been reported that the complex salt-based effect of phosphate fertilizer
application improves colloidal material [29]. Wang et al. [30] also found that nitrogen fertil-
izer application could promote macro-agglomerate formation by alleviating the limitation
of soil microorganisms, such as Actinomycetes, by nitrogen.
Under different fertilization levels, the MWD was increased by 9% and 19%, respectively,
under the ultra-low and low phosphorus treatments. This was consistent with the finding of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 10 of 15

Zhang et al. [23] that agglomerate stability decreases with increasing phosphorus fertilizer.
Blanco-Canqui et al. [31] also found that the quality of soil aggregates decreases with reduced
rates of over-application of phosphorus fertilizer. Therefore, long-term mono-application
of phosphorus fertilizer tends to lead to nitrogen deficit and land degradation. The MWD
increased by 14% in both the high and medium nitrogen fertilizer treatments. This phe-
nomenon may be related to the addition of nitrogen-inducing cementing substances. It has
been found that high N fertilizer application caused smaller particles in the soil to gel into
large water-stable soil aggregates, which were associated with substances such as root systems
and secretions [32]. In the case of both high and low organic fertilizer treatments, the MWD
was increased, with the ultra-low organic fertilizer treatment showing the most significant
increase of 41%. Contrary to the results of existing studies, Gao et al. [33] and Zhao et al. [34]
concluded that the MWD of soil aggregates was higher in high-volume organic fertilizer than
in low- and medium-volume organic fertilizer. This may be because high organic fertilizer ap-
plication reduces the soil bulk, increases the soil porosity, leads to increased microbial activity,
accelerates organic carbon decomposition within soil aggregates, reduces the cementitious
material, and thus affects soil aggregate formation and stability. Oorts et al. [35] suggested
that the soil aggregate content and stability were significantly and positively correlated with
the soil fertility levels. However, it was also believed that the application of chemical fertilizer
alone would accelerate the mineralization of soil organic matter by soil microorganisms and
cause soil slumping and destruction of the soil aggregate structure, which would not be con-
ducive to the survival of soil aggregate stability [26]. For example, the long-term application
of chemical fertilizers led to soil slumping in paddy soils, while organic fertilizer significantly
improved the soil aggregate stability [36]. This shows that changes in fertilizer application
patterns affect the process of soil agglomeration formation and alter the soil agglomeration
structure and stability.

4.2. Differences between Soil Aggregate Stability under Different Soil Types and Land Use Types
Different fertilizer applications’ effect on soil aggregates’ stability varies between soil
types. Our results found that the N, P, and organic fertilizer additions only showed a
significant increase in response to the MWD in red soils and a largely insignificant increase
in black and yellow soils. This suggests that black and yellow soils treated with N or P
fertilizers alone are less susceptible to the formation of large agglomerates and have lower
soil stability, which may lead to soil structural degradation. Organic fertilizer, but not
chemical fertilizers [37], mainly influenced soil aggregates. For example, Li et al. [38] found
that organic fertilizer significantly increased the content of >2 mm aggregates and the MWD
value in red soil. Di et al. [39] also found that organic fertilizer significantly increased the
content of stable large aggregates (>2 mm) and larger aggregates (0.25–2 mm) in red soil
and paddy soil, while chemical fertilizer application had little effect on soil stability and
even reduced the soil aggregate stability. This may be explained by the fact that red loamy
rice soils with clay minerals are mainly dominated by iron and aluminum oxides, which
are more compact and less water-stable [40]. Furthermore, contrary to the results of this
study, Zhang et al. [41] found that organic fertilizer significantly reduced the proportion
of soil aggregates with a particle size of >2 mm and the MWD values in black soils, while
chemical fertilizer application had no significant effect on the proportion of soil aggregates
distributed by particle size. Zhang et al. [42] found that chemical and organic fertilizer
applications alone increased the soil aggregate content in a black soil study. Yuan et al. [43]
also found that organic fertilizer accelerated the turnover of macro-agglomerates in black
soils and that the macro-agglomerate turnover increased with increasing organic fertilizer
application. This suggests that different soil types and fertility differences, and others, have
a great influence on the soil agglomerate distribution, which may be explained by the fact
that different types of soil aggregates form different cementing substances and quantities,
resulting in an inconsistent response of soil aggregate stability to fertilizer application
under different soil types.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 11 of 15

Our study found that the N, P, and OM treatments significantly increased the MWD
in cultivated and paddy land, while the N fertilizer treatments decreased the MWD in
gardens. This phenomenon is inconsistent with the results of existing studies. For example,
Qi et al. [44] found that the structural characteristics of the soil stability aggregates in
farmland were not significantly different from those in gardens and orchards, while in
this study, it was found that the addition of nitrogen resulted in a 241% reduction in the
MWD, which may be because nitrogen fertilizer was applied in the garden alone and
only N was ingested. In addition, the soil permeability of the garden is good. Still, the
drought is barren, the soil erosion is severe, and the water and fertilizer retention ability
could be better, thus reducing the formation and stability of aggregates. However, Shao
et al. [45] found that the combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers in cultivated land
facilitated the soil organic carbon accumulation and significantly increased the soil fertility.
Fan et al. [46] reported that different fertilizer treatments on paddy soils greatly affected
the MWD of water-stable aggregates. This may be caused by damage to the soil structure
due to anthropogenic disturbances such as cropping systems and tillage. Moreover, Luo
et al. [47] found that by studying the effects of different land use practices on the content of
water-stable macro-agglomerates, the trend in the soil agglomerate content was as follows:
wasteland > forest land > garden land > cultivated land. These findings suggest that land
use for human activities may directly damage macro-magnets on the one hand and alter
the soil environment on the other, thus affecting the plant growth and microbial activity
and inhibiting the formation and stabilization of micro-magnets [48].

4.3. Correlation and Path Analysis of the MWD Responses with Soil and Meteorological Factors
Our study found that the response ratio of the MWD was greatest for rainfall of
434 mm and a temperature of 3.7 ◦ C, and the average annual temperature and average
annual rainfall are the main factors influencing soil aggregate stability, respectively. This
indicates that stronger rainfall increases the striking force of raindrops on soil and increases
the degree of dispersion between soil particles. In addition, excessive rainfall also generates
an anaerobic environment, which leads to the possible limitation of soil microbial activity
and possible dry–wet alternation aggravating the damage to the soil aggregate stability [49].
Therefore, meteorological factors, as external conditions, have a greater influence on the
stability of soil aggregates than soil factors. Long-term fertilizer treatments also significantly
affected the soil pH, with a negative relationship between the soil pH and WMD response
ratio and a significant increase in the MWD in alkaline soils compared to acidic soils.
Consistent with the results of existing studies, the addition of organic fertilizer may increase
the soil pH compared to chemical fertilizer treatments [50]. He et al. [51] also found
that organic fertilizer and the pH affect iron and aluminum oxides, which in turn affect
soil aggregate stability. This is also possible because the soil pH affects the structure
of soil aggregates by influencing other clay minerals [52,53]. Many studies have found
that fertilizer application reduces the soil bulk density and increases soil porosity, and
it is believed that organic and inorganic fertilizers are more effective when applied in
combination [54,55], which is consistent with the results of this study.
This study showed a positive correlation between the organic matter content and the
number and stability of soil aggregates, which was consistent with the results of existing
studies. For example, Yao et al. [56] found a linear correlation between the soil organic
matter and the MWD of water-stable soil aggregates. Geng et al. [57] found that long-term
application of inorganic fertilizer increased the organic carbon content of aggregates, while
organic fertilizer application accelerated the agglomeration of small aggregates into large
aggregates. Organic matter increased the hydrophobicity of soil aggregates and reduced
the damage to soil aggregates caused by air filling in soil particles [58]. However, there
are contrary findings. For example, some studies found that the relationship between the
soil organic carbon and the MWD was not significant or negatively correlated [59]. This
is because the formation, stability, and turnover of aggregates are affected not only by
the soil organic matter but also by many factors, such as the gelation of root secretions
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 12 of 15

and the activities of microorganisms between the roots. Microbial biomass promotes soil
aggregation through the production of polysaccharides and mycelium [60]. In addition,
long-term fertilizer application may inhibit microbial biomass, leading to a significant
reduction in microbial mass carbon (MBC) [61], although as the MBC decreases, the stability
of soil aggregates increases, which is consistent with the results of this study. The responses
of different fertilizer types to the MWD under the influence of the MBC varied. The N
fertilizer alone caused a decrease in the soil microbial mass carbon, while long-term organic
fertilizer treatment led to an increase in the microbial mass carbon relative to the chemical
fertilizer and no fertilizer treatments, resulting in different levels of cementing material
affecting the soil aggregate aggregation [62,63].

5. Conclusions
This meta-analysis showed that the organic fertilizer treatments stimulated the MWD
more than the phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers and that organic fertilizer addition pro-
moted the role of soil organic cement in the agglomeration process, which in turn influenced
the soil aggregate formation. The lowest amounts of organic fertilizer (<5000 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ),
high N (>120 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ) and the lowest P (<40 kg·ha−1 ·yr−1 ) treatments stimulated the
MWD more than different levels of fertilizer application. High N fertilization can cement
smaller particles in the soil into large water-stable soil aggregates, while low levels of or-
ganic fertilization may lead to increased microbial activity, accelerating the decomposition
of organic carbon within the soil aggregates and reducing the cemented material, which
in turn affects the soil aggregation and stability. In addition, the stimulating effect of red
soils on the MWD was significantly higher than that of yellow soils and black soils. The
stimulation of the MWD was also higher in paddy fields than in gardens and cultivated
fields, indicating that anthropogenic disturbance was more sensitive to the phosphorus, ni-
trogen, and organic fertilizer addition in response to the MWD. Meanwhile, meteorological
factors were the main factors affecting the stability of the soil aggregates, and the secondary
factors were the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Overall, the organic fertil-
izer additions had an excellent stimulatory effect on the MWD compared to the chemical
fertilizers, as they provided a good source of carbon and nutrients for microorganisms.
Therefore, organic fertilizer substitution for some chemical fertilizers is more effective than
chemical fertilizer application alone in terms of the fertilization and better stabilization of
soil aggregates, and more attention should be paid to the effects of temperature and rainfall
on the stability of soil aggregates in response to fertilization.

Author Contributions: Literature collection and pretreatment: X.L., J.L., Y.C., Y.Q. and L.Z.; data
extraction: X.L., J.L., W.L. and Y.Z.; statistical analysis: X.L. and Y.C.; writing–original draft: X.L. and
J.H.; writing–review and editing: X.L. and J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (U19A2047,
42077062, 41501298) and the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund of
Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute (CKSF2023315/TB).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative interest that
represents a conflict of interest in connection with the work submitted.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10601 13 of 15

Abbreviations

Nitrogen N
Phosphate P
Organic fertilizer OM
Mean weight diameter MWD
Bulk density BD
Soil organic carbon SOC
Microbial mass carbon MBC
Microbial mass carbon MBC
Response ratio RR
Mean annual precipitation MAP
Mean annual temperature MAT
Partial least squares structural equation model PLS-SEM
Standardized path coefficient SPC

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