CONSOLIDATION

1
2
Learning Outcomes
 understand and evaluate the compressibility of soil
using one dimensional consolidation theory;

3
Key Content
 consolidation processes: primary and secondary
 one-dimensional consolidation theory
 laboratory determination of consolidation
properties

4
Section
 Introduction
 Theory of one-dimensional consolidation
 The Odeometer test
 Determination of the Coefficient of
Consolidation using root time and log time
methods
 Determination of pre-consolidation pressure,
Compression Index and the Swelling Index

5
1 Introduction

Elastic (or immediate) settlementIt takes

place during or immediately after construction.
No drainage of pore water is considered in such
a short time (Figure 1)

Consolidation settlement, in which there is a

volumetric strain V/V and the solid particles of
the soil close up when pore water drains from
the system (Figure 2). It occurs over time.

6
Elastic Settllement
Figure 1

7
Consolidation settlement
Figure 2

8
Consolidation settlement comprises two phases:

 Primary consolidation settlement

 settlement or volume change which can be accounted for
by the theory of consolidation.
 It associates with the dissipation of excess pore water
pressure..

 Secondary consolidation
 settlement occurs after completion of primary
consolidation.
 It is caused by slippage and reorientation of soil particles
under sustained load.
 more significant in organic soils.

9
2 Theory of One-dimensional Consolidation

 Terzaghi's theory of consolidation can be

explained by a simple model called Terzaghi's
box springs (Figure 3).

10
Consolidation Theory
Figure 3 (ELE)

11
 Consolidation is the result of gradual dissipation of
the excess pore water pressure from a clay layer.

 Pore water pressure dissipation, in turn, increases

the effective stress, which induces settlement.

 Hence to estimate the degree of consolidation of a

clay layer at some time t after the load application,
the rate of dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure is needed.

12
 The excess pore
water pressure at
any point A at any
time t after the load
application is

 u = ( h)w
Figure 4

13
Assumptions in One-dimensional Consolidation theory

 The clay layer is saturated and beneath the water table.

 Drainage can occur in the vertical direction only.
 Darcy’s law is valid.
 The solid particles of the soil is incompressible, which
means that the load only squeezes the water out of the
voids bus has a negligible effect in deforming the soil
soild particles, hence any changes in volume (i.e. ,
settlement) of the soil is qual to the loss of water.
 The deformation is small compared with the thickness
of the clay.
 There is no lateral expansion of the clay.
14
 Terzaghi derived the following differential equation:

(u )  2 (u ) (1)

 Cv
t z 2

Where cv = coefficient of consolidation

k
Cv 
mv w (2)
Where
k = coefficient of permeability of the clay
mv= volume coefficient of compressibility = e/[p(1 + eav)]

15
Coefficient of consolidation, cv

k
Cv 
mv w (2)

Where
k = coefficient of permeability of the clay
mv= volume coefficient of compressibility = e/[p(1 + eav)]

16
volume coefficient of compressibility , mv
e
mv  (3a)
p (1  eav )

where
e = change in void ratio
p = change in load
eav = average void ratio during consolidation

17
volume coefficient of compressibility , mv
H
mv 
pH (3b)

H = mv p’Ho (3c)

where
H = Total consolidation settlement
p’ = change in load (pressure)
Ho = original thickness of consolidation layer

18
Average degree of consoildation (U)

U = (uo – ut)/ uo (4a)

For one-dimensional consolidation, U is also

proportional to the amount of settlement which has
taken place, therefore:
U = (Ht /Hf ) x 100% (7c)
where
Ht = consolidation settlement at time t
Hf = total final consolidation settlement

19
Nondimensional time factor , Tv

cvt
Tv  2 t
Tv hc2
hc cv

Where
t = the time from the start of the consolidation
hc = the length of the longest drainage path at that
time (Figure 5)
(= thickness of consolidation layer if drainage is one-
way)
(= one-half the thickness layer if the drainage is two-
way)
20
(a) Two-way drainage (b) One-way drainage
Figure 5

21
 Degree of Time Factor cvt
Consolidation Tv 
hc2
U% Tv  Tv

0 0 0

10 0.0077 0.0877

20 0.031 0.176

30 0.071 0.266

40 0.126 0.355

50 0.196 0.433

60 0.286 0.535

70 0.403 0.635

80 0.567 0.753

90 0.848 0.921

95 1.129 1.063

100 Infinity Infinity

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 Learning Activity 1

 Plot U(%) vs Tv

 Plot U(%) vs log Tv

23
  Tv
0%

U(%)

100%

24
 Tv
0%

100
%

25
 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-20

-40 Root time

-60 數列1

-80

-100

0
-120 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-20

-40

-60 數列1

-80
Log time
-100

-120 26
Learning
Activity 2

27
Hints
(a) H = 80 mm
(b) U =40/80 * 100 = 50%; Tv = 0.196; t = ??
(c) Use t = 2 months, find Tv; find U; find H
(d) H = 80 – 20 mm = 60 mm, find how long it
takes to settle 60mm
(e) With cv and mv, find k.
 Learning Activity 3
Learning Outcome
 Understand the elastic and consolidation settlement of soil
 Understand the theory of one-dimensional consolidation
 Determine the consolidation parameters using the Odeometer
test

Explain the differences between compressibility and

consolidation of soils.
State the assumptions of the theory of consolidation.

Describe the process of consolidation using the Box-Spring

analogy (Piston Analogy)
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 Learning Activity 4
Learning Outcomes
 Understand the theory of one-dimensional consolidation
 Determine the consolidation parameters using the Odeometer test
 Interpret the laboratory test results

The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25.mm-thick clay layer

(drained at both top and bottom) in the laboratory is 2 min 20 sec.
How long (in days) will it take for a 3-m-thick clay layer of the same clay in
the field under the same pressure increment to reach 50% consolidation?
In the field, there is a rock layer at the bottom of the clay. (93.3 days)
How long (in days) to reach 90% consolidation(403.7 days)?
Repeat the above questions if the clay layer is underlain by a layer of
pervious deposit.(23.4, 101 days)

30
3 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation Cc

Odeometer Test

31
32
(Das, B.M. 2006)

33
 The test specimen is in the form of a disc, held inside a metal ring
and lying between two porous stones.
 The upper porous stone, which can move inside the ring with a
small clearance, is fixed below a metal loading cap through which
pressure can be applied to the specimen.
 The whole assembly sits in an open cell of water to which the pore
water in the specimen has free access.
 The confining metal ring imposes a condition of zero lateral strain
on the specimen.
 The compression of the specimen under pressure is measured by
means of a dial gauge operation on the loading cap.

34
 Each applied pressure is normally maintained for a
period of 24 hours, compression or settlement readings
being observed at suitable intervals during this period.
 At the end of the increment period, when the excess pore
water pressure has completely dissipated, the applied
pressure equals the effective vertical stress in the
specimen.
 This procedure is continued until the desired limit of
stress on the clay specimen is reached.
 After the desired consolidation pressure has been reached,
the specimen can be gradually unloaded, which will
result in the swelling of the specimen.

35
 The results are presented by plotting the thickness
(or percentage change in thickness) of the specimen
or the void ratio (e) at the end of each increment
period against the corresponding effective stress (p).

 The effective stress may be plotted to either a natural

or a logarithmic scale.

 The nature of variation of e against log p for a clay

specimen is shown in Figure 10b.

36
4. Determination of Coefficient of
Consolidation Cc

 The Root Time Method

 The Log Time Method

37
The Root Time Method

 The theoretical curve is linear up to about 60%

consolidation and at 90% consolidation the
abscissa (AC) is 1.15 times the abscissa (AB) of
the projection of the linear part of the curve. This
characteristic is used to determine cv using the
following procedure:

38
Refer to B.M. Das (2006) pg. Fig
The root time methode of determining Cv
Figure 6 (Das, B.M.)

39
1) cv= 0.848H2/t90 (8)

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 Learning Activity 5a
Worked example (Whitlow).
During one of the loading stages in a consolidation test the following changes in
thickness were recorded:

Time (min) 0.00 0.04 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25 9.00
Change 0.00 0.121 0.233 0.302 0.390 0.551 0.706 0.859 0.970
in thickness (mm)

Time (minutes) 12.25 16.00 25.00 36.00 64.00 100 360 1440
Change 1.065 1.127 1.205 1.251 1.300 1.327 1.401 1.482
in thickness (mm)

At the end of the last stage (1440 min.), the thickness of the specimen was 17.53 mm,
the stress had been raised by 100 kN/m2 and the water content was 24.7 per cent.
Using the root-time method, determine: (a) the coefficient of consolidation (cv), (b)
given the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is 0.723 m2/MN, find the
permeability (k), assuming Gs = 2.70.
41
42
 √t90 = ? answer?
0
-0.2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-0.4
1.15 x root time
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2 90%

-1.4
-1.6
43
 √t90 =3.79
 t90 = 14.36 min
 Final thickness = 17.53mm
 Initial thickness = 17.53 + 1.482 = 19.012mm
 Average thickness of sample = (19.012+ 17.53)/2 =
18.27mm
 T90 = Cv t90/(hc2)
 0.848 = Cv 14.36 /(18.27 /2)2
 Cv = 4.93 mm2/min

44
The log time method

 The forms of the experimental and theoretical

curves are shown in Figure 7. The experimental
curve is obtained by plotting the dial gauge
readings in the oedometer test against the
logarithm of time in minutes.

45
 Refer to B.M. D
The log time meth

Figure 7

46
1) In the experimental curve the point corresponding to U= 0
can be determined by using the fact that the initial part of
the curve represents an approximately parabolic
relationship between compression and time. Two points
were on the curve are selected (A and B in Figure 7) for
which the values of t are in the ratio of 4:1, and the
vertical distance between them is measured.
2) An equal distance set off above the first point fixes the
point (as) corresponding to U= 0. The point
corresponding to U= 0 will not generally correspond to
the point (a0) representing the initial dial gauge reading,
the difference being due mainly to the compression of
small quantities of air in the soil, the degree of saturation
being marginally below 100%. This compression is called
the initial compression.

47
1)
cv= 0.196H2/t50 (9)

48
 Learning Activity 5b
Worked example (Whitlow).
Repeat the example with the e /log 

Time (min) 0.00 0.04 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25 9.00
Change 0.00 0.121 0.233 0.302 0.390 0.551 0.706 0.859 0.970
in thickness (mm)

Time (minutes) 12.25 16.00 25.00 36.00 64.00 100 360 1440
Change 1.065 1.127 1.205 1.251 1.300 1.327 1.401 1.482
in thickness (mm)

At the end of the last stage (1440 min.), the thickness of the specimen was 17.53 mm,
the stress had been raised by 100 kN/m2 and the water content was 24.7 per cent.
Using the Casagrande method, determine: (a) the coefficient of consolidation (cv)

49
50
 Log t50 = ?Answer?
0% 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-0.2 t

-0.4 4t

-0.6

-0.8

-1

100% -1.2

-1.4

-1.6

51
 Log t50 =0.52
 t50 = 3.31 min
 Average Thickness of sample = 17.53+1.482/2 = 18.27
 T50 = Cv t50/(hc2)
 0.196 = Cv 3.31 /(18.27/2)2
 Cv = 4.95 mm2/min

52
Comparison of the Log Time Method and the
Root Time Method
• The root time method requires compression
readings covering a much shorter period of time
compared with the log time method. The log
time method requires the accurate definition of
the second linear part of the curve well into the
secondary consolidation range.
• On the other hand, a straight line portion is not
always obtained on the root time plot and in
such cases the log time method should be used.

53
4. Determination of pre-consolidation pressure,
Compression Index and the Swelling Index

Consolidation Settlement
 Laboratory tests on undisturbed saturated clay specimens
can be used to determine the consolidation settlement
caused by various incremental loadings.
 The nature of variation of e against log p for a clay
specimen is shown in Figure 9 and this can be used to
estimate consolidation pressure.

54
 Refer to B.M. Das (2006) pg. Fig
(a) Schematic diagram of consolidation
test arrangement (b) e log p curve

Figure 8 (Das, B.M. 2006)

55
1. Preconsolidation Pressure
 The preconsolidation pressure, pc, is the maximum past effective
overburden pressure to which the soil specimen has been subjected. It
can be determined by using the following simple graphical procedure
(Figure 8b):
Determine the point 0 on the e-log p curve that has the sharpest
curveature.
Draw a horizontal line OA.
Draw a line OB that is tangent to the e-log p curve at O.
Draw a line OC that bisects the angle A OB.
Produce the straight line portion of the e-log p curve to intersect OC at
D. The pressure at point D is the preconsolidation pressure, pc.

56
 Natural soil deposits can be normally consolidated
or overconsolidated (or preconsolidated).
 If the present effective overburden pressure p0 is
equal to the preconsolidation pressure pc, the soil is
normally consolidated.
 If p0 <pc, the soil is overconsolidated.

57
2. Compression Index, Cc
 The compression index, Cc, is the slope of the straight
line portion (latter part of the loading curve) of the e-
log p curve, or

e1  e2 e e
Cc   1 2
log p2  log p1  p2  (10)
log  
 p1 

where e1 and e2 are the void ratios at the end of

consolidation under stresses p1 and p2 respectively.

58
 3. Swelling Index, Cs
 The swelling index, Cs, is the slope of the unloading
portion of the e-log p curve. In Figure 8, it can be
defined as

e3  e4
Cs  (11)
p 
log  4 
 p3 
In most cases the values of Cs is 1/4 to 1/5 of Cc.

59
 Learning Activity 6
The following compression readings were obtained in an oedometer test on a specimen of
saturated clay (Gs = 2.73):
Pressure
(kN/m2) 0 54 107 214 429 858 1716 3432 0
Dial gauge after 24
h (mm) 5.000 4.747 4.493 4.108 3.449 2.608 1.676 0.737 1.480

The initial thickness of the specimen was 19.0 mm and at the end of the test the water
content was 19.8%.
Plot the e-log  ' curve
Determine the values of mv for the stress increments 100-200 kN/m2 and 1000-1500
kN/m2. (0.20, 0.067 m2/MN)
Determine the preconsolidation pressure. (325 kN/m2)
What is the value of Cc for the latter increment? (0.31)

60
Void ratio at end of test = e1 = mG
= 0.198 x 2.73 = 0.541
Void ratio at start of test = eo = e1 + e

H = 3.520mm

H/H = e/(1+eo) = (eo - e1 )/(1+eo)

3.520/19 = (eo – 0.541)/ (1+ eo)

e = 0.350
eo = 0.350 + 0.541 = 0.891
e = H/H (1+eo)
e = H/19 * (1+ 0.891)
e /H = (1.891)/19

61
 i.e. e = 0.0996 H, and can be used to obtain the void
ratio at the end of each increment period
 The e-log' curve using these values is shown. Using
Casagrande's construction the value of the preconsolidation
pressure is 325 kN/m2.

62
Pressure H(mm)  e=0.996 H e1=eo - e
(kN/m2) eo = 0.891

0 0 0 0.891
54 0.253 0.025 0.866
107 0.507 0.050 0.841
214 0.892 0.089 0.802
429 1.551 0.154 0.737
858 2.392 0.238 0.653
1716 3.324 0.331 0.560
3432 4.263 0.424 0.467
0 3.520 0.350 0.541 63
 Learning Activity

mv = e/[p/(1+e)]
unit : Length2/Force

where e = change in void ratio

p = change in load
eo = initial void ratio

64
 1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750
65
 1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 20
66
67
 1 Preconsolidation
0.9

0.8
0.7

0.6

0.5 數列1
0.4

0.3
0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4
68
e
1 Preconsolidation
0.9

0.8
0.7
Bisect
0.6 angle
0.5 數列1
0.4

0.3
0.2

0.1

0
2.51 Log p
0 1 2 3 4
69
 Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) = anti log (2.51)

 Pc = 324 kN/m2

70
 Learning Activity

e1  e2 e e
Cc   1 2
log p2  log p1  p2 
log  
 p1 
where e1 and e2 are the void ratios at the end of
consolidation under stresses p1 and p2
respectively.

71
 1 Find Cc
s
0.9

0.8
0.7 e1

0.6

0.5 e2 數列1
0.4

0.3
0.2

0.1

0
Log p
0 1 2 2 3 Log p 1 4
72
 Log P2 = 2.85
 Log P1 = 3.35
 e1 = 0.68
 e2= 0.53

 Cc = 0.68 – 0.525 /(3.35 – 2.85)

 = 0.155/0.5
= 0.31

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 Settlement Calculation

 The one-dimensional consolidation consolidation

settlement of a clay layer (Figure 9a) having a
thickness Hc may be calculated as
e
S Hc
1  eo  (12)

where S = settlement
e = total change of void ratio caused by the additional load
application
eo = the void ratio of the clay before the application of load

74
 For normally consolidated clay, If  p = average pressure
increase on the clay layer caused by the added load, the
change of void ratio caused by the load increase is

po  p ( 13)
e  Cc log
po
Now, combining Eqs. 12 and 13 yields

Cc H c p  p
S log o (14)
1  eo  po

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 For overconsolidated clay, the field e-log p curve will be
similar to Figure 9. In this case, depending on the value of
 p, two conditions may arise (Das, B.M.).
First, if (po + p) < pc

H c Cs po  p (15)
S log
1  eo  po

Second, if po < pc < (po + p)

Cs H c pc H c Cc po  p
S log  log (16)
1  eo  po 1  eo  pc

76
 Learning Activity 7
A laboratory consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay showed the
following :
Load, p (kN/m2) Void Ratio at the end of consolidation
140 0.92
212 0.86
The specimen tested was 25.4 mm in thickness and drained on both sides.
The time required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation was 4.5
min.
A similar clay layer in the field, 2.8 m thick and drained on both sides, is
subjected to similar average pressure increase (that is, po = 140 kN/m2
and (po+  p) = 212 kN/m2). Determine the
a. Expected maximum consolidation settlement in the field (87.5mm)
b. Length of time required for the total settlement in the field to reach 40
mm (34.1 days)

77
(a)
Cc = e /(log p2 – log p1)
= (0.92 – 0.86)/(log 212 – log 140)
= 0.333
S or Hfinal
S = Cc /(1+eo) H log [(po +  p)/po]
=1/(1+0.92) * 2.8 * log (212/140)
= 0.0875m
(b)
Degree of Consolidation
U = 40mm/87.5 mm x 100 = 45.7%
From graph Tv = 0.177
Given 50% consolidation takes 4.5 min
Tv = Cv t/H2
0.197 = Cv 4.5/(25.4/2)2
Cv = 7.061 mm2/min
For 45.7% degree of consolidation
0.177 = 7.061t/(2800/2)2
t = 49132 min (34.1 days)
78
 Learning Activity 8
Worked example (Whitlow)
The following readings were obtained from an oedometer test on a specimen of
saturated clay. The load being held constant for 24 hrs are the addition of
the next increment.
Appliedstress 0 25 50 100 200 400 800
(kN/m2)
Thickness (mm)19.60 19.25 18.98 18.61 18.14 17.68 17.24
At the end of the last load period the load was removed and the sample allowed
to expand for 24 hrs, at the end of which time its thickness was 17.92 mm
and its water content found to be 31.8 per cent. The specific gravity of the
soil was 2.66.
Plot the e/ curve and determine the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
for an effective stress range of 220-360 kN/m2. (0.127)
Plot the e/log  ' curve and from it determine the compressibility index (CC .
preconsolidation pressure ( 'p). (0.153, 43)

79
Learning Activity 8

Do yourselves

80
81
 Learning Activity 9
 Explain: Average degree of consolidation,
Preconsolidation pressure, Overconsolidated clay

 Distinguish between normally consolidated clay and

overconsolidated clay.

 Define Cc, Cs, mv

 Describe the Root time method

 Describe the Log-time method.

82
Disclaimer- the author has tried his best to indicate all references
but there is no guarantee that all materials cited can be
included.
Further References

 Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 6th

Edition. Cengage Learning.
 Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics. 7th Ed, E & FN Spon.
 Capper, P.L., Cassie, W.F. and Geddes, J.D. (1980). Problems
in Engineering Soil, E & FN Spon.
 Whitlow,R.(2000) Basic Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Prentice
Hall.
 Barnes, G.E. (2000) Soil Mechanics Principles and Practices,
MacMilan.
 Berry, P.L. & Reid, D.(1987) An Introduction to Soil
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Company
 Budhu, M. (2000), Soil mechanics & Foundations, 2nd Ed.,
John Wiley & Sons
 Smith G.N. (1990), Elements of Soil Mechanics, 6th Ed, BSP
Professional Books.
 Sutton, B.H.C (1993). Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics,
2nd Ed, Longman.
 ELE International. Catalogue in Laboratory Testing.

83