See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/264815424

Tourism adaptation to climate change - analysing the policy environment of

Fiji

Article in International Journal of Tourism Policy · October 2012

DOI: 10.1504/IJTP.2012.049722

CITATIONS READS

12 3,274

5 authors, including:

Min Jiang Emma Wong

City of Whittlesea University of Surrey
46 PUBLICATIONS 785 CITATIONS 11 PUBLICATIONS 284 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Terry DeLacy Dale Dominey-Howes

Victoria University Melbourne The University of Sydney
90 PUBLICATIONS 2,516 CITATIONS 158 PUBLICATIONS 7,127 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Dale Dominey-Howes on 22 August 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

238 Int. J. Tourism Policy, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2012

Tourism adaptation to climate change – analysing the

policy environment of Fiji

Min Jiang*
Centre for Tourism and Services Research,
School of International Business,
Victoria University,
Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia
E-mail: min.jiang@vu.edu.au
*Corresponding author

Emma Wong
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
University of Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
E-mail: emma.wong@surrey.ac.uk

Louise Munk Klint and Terry DeLacy

Centre for Tourism and Services Research,
School of International Business,
Victoria University,
Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia
E-mail: louise.klint@live.vu.edu.au
E-mail: Terry.Delacy@vu.edu.au

Dale Dominey-Howes
Australia-Pacific Tsunami Research Centre
and Natural Hazards Research Laboratory,
University of New South Wales,
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
E-mail: dale.dh@unsw.edu.au

Abstract: As the largest export sector and a major employer for Fiji, tourism is
probably highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to the sector’s
dependence on environment and climate. This paper evaluates the conduciveness
of Fiji’s policy environment for tourism adaptation to climate change. It analyses
how Fiji’s policies (both explicit and implicit) in climate change, tourism,
environmental and disaster management address tourism adaptation types as
well as characteristics of Small Island Developing States and Territories (SIDST)
that make them especially vulnerable to climate change. The paper concludes
that Fiji does provide a reasonably conducive policy environment for its tourism
to adapt, but some important adaptation issues still remain as policy gaps. The
Fijian government shows an intention to integrate climate change into sectoral
policies, but it is yet to be mainstreamed into the tourism sector. Most of the

Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Tourism adaptation to climate change 239

initiatives are policy-level adaptation with research and education the second
adaptation type relatively well addressed. Other aspects of adaptation, particularly
technical, business management and behavioural adaptations, need to be more
comprehensively addressed in Fiji. Based on these identified policy gaps, the
paper recommends that the tourism sector in Fiji needs to deal with challenges
in raising awareness of climate change issues, building financial and human
resources capacities and ensuring policy implementation.

Keywords: tourism; climate change; adaptation; policy environment; Fiji.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Jiang, M., Wong, E., Klint,
L.M., DeLacy, T. and Dominey-Howes, D. (2012) ‘Tourism adaptation to climate
change – analysing the policy environment of Fiji’, Int. J. Tourism Policy, Vol. 4,
No. 3, pp.238–260.

Biographical notes: Min Jiang is a Research Fellow at the Centre for Tourism
and Services Research, School of International Business, Victoria University, Mel-
bourne, Australia. Trained as an Environmental Lawyer, Min’s current research
interests include tourism and the green economy, tourism adaptation to climate
change and tourism’s interaction with the environment.

Emma Wong is a Lecturer in Tourism and Event Management at the University

of Surrey, UK. Her main research interests are destination development, tourism
adaptation to climate change and tourism policy.

Louise Munk Klint is a PhD candidate and Research Associate at the Centre for
Tourism and Services Research, School of International Business at Victoria
University, Melbourne, Australia. With a background in tourism, her current
research focuses on tourism and climate change. Her PhD thesis establishes a
climate change vulnerability and resilience framework for the dive tourism sector
in Vanuatu.

Terry DeLacy is a Professor in Sustainable Tourism and Environmental Policy

at Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He was previously director of the
Australian government-established National Sustainable Tourism Co-operative
Research Centre. He is co-author of the recent book “Green Growth and Travelism:
Letters from Leaders” (Goodfellow Publishers 2012).

Dale Dominey-Howes is Director of the Australia – Pacific Tsunami Research

Centre and Natural Hazards Research Lab at the University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia. He is a geographer by training, with expertise in natural hazards
and disaster risk reduction.

1 Introduction
As the largest export sector, a key contributor to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and a
major employer for most Pacific Island Countries (PICs), tourism is crucial to the social
and economic development of the communities in the Pacific (South Pacific Tourism
240 M. Jiang et al.

Organisation (SPTO) 2007). Climate change is an important long-term threat to Pacific

tourism (Campbell, 2009; Secretarial of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme
(SPREP) 2005). The Pacific region is identified as a ‘climate-tourism hotspot’ where climate
change is likely to have a major adverse effect on tourism (Scott et al., 2008; Becken and
Hay, 2007). A recent Oxfam report states that “climate change has the potential to affect
almost every issue linked to poverty and development in the Pacific” (Maclellan et al., 2009,
p.7). Small Island Developing States and Territories (SIDST) characteristics ranging from
limited natural resources to limited funds and human resource skills make PICs particularly
vulnerable to climate change (Sem and Moore, 2009; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) 2007; Méheux et al., 2007). PICs are highly vulnerable to sea level rise and
storm surges, owing partly to their small land masses surrounded by ocean and their location
in regions prone to natural disasters such as cyclones and tsunamis (SPREP, 2008). As a
climate-dependent industry, Pacific tourism is probably highly sensitive to climate change
impacts as the physical attributes of destinations are altered, compromising the levels of
enjoyment and comfort of tourists (Becken and Hay, 2007) and consequently, influencing
the levels and patterns of travel.
To assist the Pacific island tourism sector to adapt to climate change impacts, the authors
have reviewed and analysed the existing relevant policies in PICs. The policy analysis
aimed to understand how current policies contribute to the vulnerability and resilience of
Pacific tourism to climate change and based on this, to make recommendations on tourism
adaptation policies and strategies in PICs. This paper presents the findings of the policy
analysis of Fiji and examines the conduciveness of policies for the Fijian tourism sector
to adapt to climate change. It analyses the existing policy environment in Fiji, identifies
policy gaps, assesses the vulnerability of the destination to climate change and suggests
policy modifications.
Following the introduction, Section 2 describes tourism in the Pacific more widely and
Fiji specifically and also the challenges that confront it through climate change impacts.
Section 3 reviews the policy analysis approaches and methods. In Section 4, policy analysis
findings are presented, including an inventory of policies, description of the policy-making
environment and policy-making mechanisms, through which the conduciveness of the
policies for tourism adaptation to climate change in Fiji may be assessed. Finally, the paper
makes recommendations on possible policy reform.

2 Tourism in Fiji
Tourism is a major economic sector in the Pacific (Fig. 1a). It is the largest export sector
for most Pacific SIDST and offers great opportunity for economic growth, employment
and sustainable development (Cheer, 2010; Edgell et al., 2008; Pacific Institute of Public
Policy, 2008). Representing a primary contributor to the GDP (Becken and Hay, 2007),
tourism exports in the region ranged from 15–20% in Samoa to 65–70% in Palau (Australian
Agency for International Development (AusAID) 2009; Harrison, 2010). Two-thirds of
tourism expenditures stays in the country and these tourism export receipts benefit the poor
due to the sector’s labour intensity, use of low-skilled workers and the opportunities for
small and informal business (AusAID, 2009). The sector is also a major employer in Pacific
SIDST – i.e., 31% of total employment in Fiji and 42.4% in Vanuatu (Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) 2008).
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 241

Figure 1a Map of Fiji Islands (see online version for colours)

Located in the heart of the Pacific Ocean, Fiji contains 332 islands (Fig. 1b), of which about
one-third are inhabited, with a total population of 837,271 including 56.8% of Fijian and
37.5% of Indian ancestry (Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics (FIBOS) 2009). Nasinu and Suva
City (capital) are the two major towns in Fiji, with 76,064 residents living in Nasinu and
74,481 in Suva City (FIBOS, 2009).
Tourism, together with sugar and remittances (flow of goods and money from internal
and international migrants to family members at home) are the three main income
generators for Fiji’s economy (Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 2010; Connell and
Brown, 2005). While traditional export sectors like sugar have been experiencing
decline in their share of the GDP, tourism is now the largest source of economic growth,
investment and foreign exchange earnings (Government of Fiji, 2006), representing
20–30% of the GDP AusAID, 2009; Harrison, 2010; World Travel and Tourism Council
(WTTC, 2011).
The tourism sector in Fiji has grown significantly over the years (See Fig. 1). In 1999,
the country hosted 409,955 visitors, generating gross tourism earnings of approximately
559 million Fiji Dollars (F$m) (1 FJD approximately = USD 0.50 in 1999). In 2000, both
the number of visitors and tourism earnings decreased by about 30%, as a result of a
military coup. Fiji’s tourism has since recovered from the decline and in 2006, registered
total visitor arrivals of 548,589 and earnings of 823 F$m (Reserve Bank of Fiji, 2010).
Due to the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), Fiji’s tourism experienced a slight drop in
2007 and 2009, while 2008 reported an impressive growth in both visitor arrivals and
earnings.
242 M. Jiang et al.

Figure 1b Map of Fiji Islands (see online version for colours)

Figure 2 Growth of tourism in Fiji 1994–2009 (see online version for colours)

Source: Reserve Bank of Fiji (2010)

 Tourism adaptation to climate change 243

Enjoying a tropical South Sea climate, Fiji has a broad variety of natural, cultural and
built attractions, including beaches, mountains, rainforests, resorts, golf courses, museums,
cultural centres and temples (Sustainable Tourism Development Consortium (STDC), 2007).
Its top five tourism areas are Natadola to Vuda, Coral Coast, Suva, Mamanuca and Lautoka/
Rakiraki (STDC, 2007).

3 Climate change impacts on tourism in Fiji

The tourism sector is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to its close
connections to the environment and climate itself (United Nations World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO) et al., 2008). Similar to other Pacific SIDST, Fiji confronts climate
change issues and vulnerabilities, including sea level rise leading to coastal erosion and
coastal inundation, warming sea surface temperatures leading to coral bleaching, increases
in frequency/intensity of tropical cyclones, floods, scarcity of water resources, EI Nino-
related drought, declining crop production and increased incidence of diseases such as
dengue fever and diarrhoea (Government of Fiji, 2005; STDC, 2007; Global Environment
Facility (GEF) et al., 2009).
Pacific tourism suffers from a range of specific difficulties, including isolation from major
markets, small populations, inadequate transportation links, lack of local appropriate skills
and inadequate amounts of local capital, which lead to a lower resistance to external shocks
(Scheyvens and Momsen, 2008).
Climate change will have direct and indirect impacts on the tourism sector in Fiji. Coastal
deterioration caused by beach erosion and coral bleaching are two of the major issues for
Fiji’s tourism sector and will expectedly affect the attractiveness of the destination for
tourists and cause a decrease in the tourism destination value (Fiji Ministry of Tourism,
United Nations’ World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and GEF, 2006; National Institute
of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research, 2007). Sea level rise and more intense
tropical cyclones pose a risk to tourism infrastructure that is mainly coastal-based. With
water supply already being a key concern (Fiji Ministry of Tourism, UNWTO and GEF,
2006), droughts and temporarily reduced water availability will further exacerbate water
shortages and competitions (GEF et al., 2009).
Studies have also shown that climate change mitigation policies may impact on
tourism demands and flows. For instance, international policies on air travel are likely
to impact tourist decision making through increases in transport prices (Becken and
Clapcott, 2011; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 2009). The increasing cost
of long haul travel, therefore, will potentially reduce Pacific destinations’ competitiveness
(Becken and Clapcott, 2011; Pentelow and Scott, 2010; Gossling et al., 2008; Forsyth
et al., 2007). While some empirical studies concluded that green ethical impacts on
consumers may have had little effect on behavioural change in travel patterns, it may
affect long haul air travel differentially, as tourists’ awareness of tourism’s impact on
the climate and the environment grows (DeLacy and Lipman, 2010; McKercher et al.,
2010; Becken, 2007). Fiji, being a remote small island destination heavily dependent
on long haul travel, would suffer proportionally more than short-haul destinations to
any such demand changes. Consequently, concerted efforts are required to strengthen
the resilience of the tourism sector to the various challenges and risks resulting from
climate change.
244 M. Jiang et al.

4 Policy analysis for an understanding of the tourism sector’s vulnerability

Vulnerability is “the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse
effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes” (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, p.6). It is “a function of the character, magnitude and
rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity and its adaptive capacity”
(IPCC, 2007, p.138). Governance processes including policies are a key determinant of
vulnerability of a tourism destination (Calgaro, 2010). Furthermore, governmental policies
can hinder or facilitate tourism development (Gunn, 1994). Understanding the tourism
sector’s vulnerability, therefore, requires an understanding of policies.
Policy can refer to a course of action or inaction and decision or non-decision taken by
public authorities to address a particular problem, set of problems, concerns or opportunities
(Hall and Jenkins, 1995). From a broader perspective, one can also argue that policy
involves dynamic cooperation of policy actors that have various interests and the consequent
legitimisation of a shared view through the institution of government (Considine, 1994).
It means that not only government but Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and
the tourism sector itself can also develop policies that influence adaptability (Dredge and
Jenkins, 2007). Compston (2009) scoped out a generic policy network relating to climate
change, which includes a wide range of actors such as government ministers and agencies,
non-government politicians, judges and regulators, business, interest groups and NGOs,
media, experts and electorate.
Therefore, policy is a process that involves various actors formulating and implementing
policies in a dynamic environment (Hall and Jenkins, 1995). Taking the policy process
perspective, Keeley and Scoones (2003) define policy as “a product of a linear process
moving through stages of agenda-setting, decision-making and finally, implementation”
(p.22). Climate change is a multi-scale policy problem requiring implementation of policies
(Hall, 2009). To be implemented, policy intention has to be translated into practical measures,
for example, in the form of laws, regulations, programmes or projects (Pasteur, 2001).

5 Tourism adaptation to climate change

Climate change adaptation is defined as “the adjustment in natural or human systems in
response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities” (IPCC, 2007, p.6). Aiming to minimise negative impacts
and possibly identify and take advantage of opportunities or positive changes resulting
from climate change, adaptation involves different tourism stakeholders at all levels from
individuals to organisations, both public and private sectors, as well as households and
communities (Simpson et al., 2008). Tourism adaptation to climate change can be categorised
into five types (Scott et al., 2008):
1 technical – changes made to physical infrastructure or provisions
2 business management – changes made by the private sector in their businesses
3 behavioural – behavioural changes made by tourists or communities
4 policy – changes in government plans or strategies
5 research and education – initiatives to strengthen the understanding of climate change
and adaptation, explore adaptation options and educate communities.
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 245

Tourism adaptation processes can be different as well. Hall and Higham (2005) presented the
concept of explicit and implicit processes that the tourism sector can go through to adapt to
climate change impacts. Explicit adaptation processes occur within a climate change policy
context, whereas implicit ones are not linked to climate change policies.

6 Methods
Since tourism in PICs is thought to be highly vulnerable to climate change, adaptation will
be crucial to effective coping. Accordingly, a policy analysis was conducted to examine how
policies in Fiji hinder or facilitate tourism adaptation to climate change. The assessment of
conduciveness of the policy environment will help identify policy gaps and inform the future
directions of adaptation policies and strategies for the tourism sector.
The key objectives of the policy analysis were:
• to create an inventory of policies to Fiji’s tourism climate change adaptation
• to examine the policy-making environment that provides the context for future policy
recommendations
• to examine the policy-making mechanisms that would inform how future policy
recommendations can be implemented
• to identify policy gaps, i.e., adaptation issues that are yet to be addressed, by studying
how existing policies contribute to (or hinder) tourism adaptation to climate change
• to provide input into the evaluation of adaptive capacity of the tourism sector.
To assess the conduciveness of the policy environment to climate change adaptation, four
key policy areas were analysed: climate change, environment, tourism development, and
risk and disaster management. In terms of timelines of policies, the analysis includes policies
that are currently in effect, policies that are being conceptualised or formulated and policies
that are no longer in effect but have had a significant impact on current practice. The scope
of the policy analysis was not confined to documented policies, but took a holistic approach
where the policy-making environment, the power and interest dynamics between diverse
stakeholders, the policy mechanisms and the policies themselves, were all analysed and
ultimately, policy gaps were identified.
Policies were also examined against the characteristics of SIDST that make them especially
vulnerable to climate change risks. These have been highlighted by Sem and Moore (2009)
as: limited size, limited natural resources, natural hazards, water, low economic resilience,
population growth and density, infrastructure and limited funds and human resource skills.
Figure 3 illustrates how the policy analysis was undertaken by integrating the elements
of policy process, adaptation types and SIDST characteristics. The framework allowed each
policy to be evaluated as to whether its objectives had been met, were in progress or delayed,
or were not met.
The conduciveness of the policy environment was then assessed based on three
dimensions, i.e., the level of commitment of key stakeholders to the policy agenda, resources
availability and the presence of an enabling policy mechanism (Wong et al., 2010).
Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The use of multiple sources
helped assure the conformability (or objectivity) and credibility of findings (Lincoln and Guba,
1985). Secondary resources included official policy documents as well as background information
246 M. Jiang et al.

about the geography, history, politics, institutional structure, economy and climate change-related
hazards of Fiji, such as tropical cyclones (FIBOS, 2009; GEF et al., 2009; Government of Fiji,
2005). An extensive literature review was conducted across existing policy documents, academic
literature, news reports and other relevant sources. In-country primary data collection was also
undertaken to allow data not available in secondary sources to be included, to examine policy
issues from multiple perspectives and to understand interest dynamics involved.

Figure 3 The PT-CAP Pacific tourism and climate change policy analysis framework

Face-to-face semi-structured in-depth interviews (average 40 minutes in length) were

conducted in Fiji between October and November 2009. The research has been approved
to meet the requirements of the human research ethics clearance through the researchers’
university. Interviewees included individuals who were highly involved in the formulation
and implementation of policies identified, or were highly knowledgeable about those policies.
Interviewees were identified based on publicly accessible information on the internet and
the research team’s professional network. Purposeful sampling methods were used to allow
for selecting information-rich cases that could provide much information about the issues
being studied (Bird, 2009; Patton, 2002). A snowball sampling technique was used where
interviewees recommended other individuals to be interviewed (Patton, 2002). As shown in
Table 1, a total of 26 interviews were held, representing seven stakeholder groups ranging
from government, industry and other organisations. Interviewing was stopped when the data
saturation point was reached (Minichiello et al., 1995) and the themes emerging from the
interviews started to repeat themselves.
The following elements were incorporated into the interview structure:
1 introduction
2 scoping
3 policy purpose
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 247

4 conceptualisation
5 decision
6 implementation and coordination
7 outcome
8 implications for tourism adaptation to climate change.

Table 1 Sample of primary data collection in Fiji

Stakeholder group Number of interviews

Government 6
Intergovernmental organisation 1
Supranational organisation 4
Tourism industry 2
Donor/development organisation 4
NGO 6
Research institute/university 3
Total 26

Table 2 shows the examples of questions asked during the interviews.

Table 2 Interview question examples

Element Question examples

Introduction Can you tell me a bit about your organisation and your role please?
Scoping Are you aware of any tourism adaptation policies in any area of
tourism development, climate change, environment and disaster
management?
Policy purpose What is the purpose of the policy? Is there a difference between
what is on paper and the reality?
Conceptualisation What triggered the development of the policy? What kind/level of
commitment was demonstrated?
Decision Which agencies or individuals were involved in decision-making?
Implementation/coordination Did the policy eventuate? How was the relationship of the actors
involved with each other?
Outcome What was resulted from this policy? How did the stakeholders
respond to it?
Implications for tourism Does the policy facilitate or hinder climate change adaptation for
adaptation to climate change the tourism sector? How?

7 Policy analysis findings

7.1 Inventory of policies

A total of 23 policies were identified as potentially pertinent to climate change adaptation for
tourism in Fiji, of which eight were explicit climate change policies and 15 were implicit.
248 M. Jiang et al.

7.2 Explicit policies

Fiji ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in
1993 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1998, helping Fiji to put climate change on its agenda. The
National Climate Change Committee was formed in 1998, as a result of the implementation
of the Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Programme (PICCAP). In 2005, the Initial
National Communication was prepared and following this, a number of explicit climate
change policies were developed (Fig. 4).

Figure 4 Mapping out explicit climate change policies in Fiji

Note: UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; PICCAP:

the Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Programme; NCCC: National
Climate Change Committee; GEF: Global Environment Facility; PACC: Pacific
Adaptation to Climate Change; CC: Climate Change; NSCA: National Capacity
Self-Assessment; CDM: Clean Development Mechanism; REEEP: the Renewable
Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership.

Fiji’s First National Communication under the UNFCCC provided an overview of national
circumstances, particularly aspects related to climate change issues and a Green House Gas
(GHG) inventory, and analysed mitigation strategies, vulnerability assessment and adaptation
assessments and options. It also provided an overview of policies and programmes relating
to the implementation of the UNFCCC. Tourism, as a key sector in Fiji’s economy, has been
overviewed in the communication. While no tourism specific adaptation was mentioned,
various adaptation options for coastal resources, water resources, agriculture and health were
identified based on the vulnerability assessment of the likely impacts of predicted climate
change scenarios (Government of Fiji, 2005).
Fiji’s climate change policy: the Framework 2007 was developed to promote understanding
and formulate appropriate responses to climate change. It identified six objectives and
specific strategies for each objective, which provided a roadmap for the current climate
change policy development (Department of Environment of Fiji (DOE), 2007):
• to mainstream climate change issues in all environmental, social and economic processes
including enactment and amending of current legislations
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 249

• to improve and strengthen the collection, storage, management, analysis and use of data
to monitor climate, sea level change patterns and their effects
• to promote the raising of awareness and understanding of climate change, climate
variability and sea level change, vulnerability, mitigation and adaptation responses
• to protect the populations, resources and assets, vulnerable areas, at risk from the
impacts of climate change
• to mitigate the causes of human-induced climate change
• the government meets its commitment and implements domestic policies in line with
relevant international instruments under the relevant commitments on climate change
to which it is a signatory.
In 2008, Fiji engaged in the National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA) Programme
funded by GEF to conduct a thorough self-assessment and analysis of national
capacity needs, priorities and constraints with respect to meeting global environmental
management objectives, in particular the three Rio Conventions (i.e., UNFCCC, the
United Nations Convention for Biological Diversity (UNCBD) and the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)). The NCSA project formulated a
national action plan that provided a set of recommended strategies and programmes for
capacity development to better address the three thematic areas of the Rio Conventions
(DOE, 2009).
Fiji is one of the only two countries (the other one is Papua New Guinea) in the Pacific
that can trade carbon credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). However,
the opportunities in the CDM carbon trading market for renewable energy have not been
realised by the Fijian Government until the stocktaking exercise of the above mentioned
NCSA project. In 2008, the cabinet approved the establishment of a carbon trading technical
team to advise and work closely with the Department of Environment (DOE), which
operates as Fiji’s national authority for the CDM. The team is responsible for identifying
and formulating potential projects for carbon credit trading, both in the voluntary and
compulsory carbon trading markets (DOE, 2009).
Funded by GEF, the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) project produced the
Fiji PACC Report of In-country Consultations 2009, which recognised tourism as Fiji’s most
important industry and the largest foreign exchange earner. Nevertheless, it selected food
production and food security as a priority sector for adaptation intervention in Fiji under the
PACC project (GEF et al., 2009).
While the climate change policy (the Framework and NCSA reports) provided general
guidance for Fiji in developing climate change policies, several tourism-specific projects or
plans have been incorporating climate change issues into the sectoral policies, as highlighted
in Figure 4. The Tourism Development Plan 2007–2016 identified climate change as a risk
and the need to understand climate change impacts on the tourism sector (STDC, 2007). It
included a section on climate change in its sustainable development chapter, which stated
that Fiji, as a SIDST, is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts and Fiji’s tourism
industry would have been negatively affected (STDC, 2007). The hotel sector energy
efficiency project of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP)
explicitly addressed both climate change and tourism, although with a focus on mitigation.
250 M. Jiang et al.

A GEF-funded tourism adaptation project was developed in 2006, but unfortunately remains
inactive with a four-year delay in funding approval since its initial stakeholder workshop.
The summary report of the workshop, however, identified a wide range of possible adaptation
measures for tourism as well as adaptation barriers that exist in the current policy setting of
Fiji (Fiji Ministry of Tourism, UNWTO and GEF, 2006).

7.3 Implicit policies

Fifteen policies were identified in tourism, the environment, disaster and risk management
and economic and social development policy areas having implicit components pertinent to
climate change adaptation for the tourism sector in Fiji (Table 2).

Table 3 Implicit policies identified as pertinent to tourism adaptation to climate change in Fiji

Policy areas Number of policies

Tourism 5
Environment 5
Disaster risk management 4
Other 1
Total 15

The Fijian government has acknowledged the importance of tourism in the economy and has
developed a number of tourism policies including:
• Ecotourism and Village-Based Tourism Policy and Strategy 1998
• Green Globe Programme 2003
• Visitor Bureau Act 2004
• Hotel Aid Act 1964 (revised in 2006)
• Tourism Development Plan 2007–2016 (TDP) (Action Plan 2007–2009 and Regional
Tourism Strategies 2007–2016 for Nadi Corridor, Suncoast, Vanua Levu and Taveuni
and Yasawa Islands).
TDP sets out the overall policy for Fiji’s tourism by including a wide range of issues from
marketing, branding and tourism product diversification, to capacity building, knowledge
sharing and risk management (STDC, 2007).
Five environmental policies were identified that have potential implications for tourism
adaptation to climate change in Fiji. These environmental policies aim to apply the principles
of sustainable use and development of natural resources and protect the environment and
natural resources of Fiji. They are:
• Environment Management Act 2005
• Environment Management (EIA Process) Regulations 2007
• Environment Management (Waste Disposal and Recycling) Regulations 2007
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 251

• Forest Policy Statement 2007

• National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2007.
Fiji also had four disaster risk management policies in place, as detailed below.
• National Disaster Management Plan 1995
• Natural Disaster Management Act 1998
• National Emergency Operations Centre Standard Operating Procedures (undated)
• The 30-metre coastal setback regulation for coastal developments.
These policies provide the institutional arrangements of natural disaster management for
Fiji. Currently, both the 1998 Act and the 1995 Plan are under review with the intention to
shift disaster risk management towards a risk reduction and preparedness approach.
Last, the National Strategic Development Plan 2007–2011 acknowledged both climate
change and sea level rise as a major environmental problem and the economic value of
tourism, which greatly contributes to the strategic priorities of maintaining stability and
sustaining growth.

7.4 Policy-making environment

Fiji gained independence in 1970 and established itself as a parliamentary democracy
by adopting a bicameral Westminster model parliamentary system (Parliament of Fiji,
2010). In 1987, two military coups took place, after which Fiji was declared a Republic.
In 2000, Fiji experienced a coup and the government was taken over by an interim civilian
government appointed by the military. Another coup took place in 2006 and as a result,
military chief Voreqe Bainimarama was appointed as the interim Prime Ministry in 2007
(Government of Fiji, 2010), indicating that the military was still effectively in control of
the government.
The DOE is the government agency that drives the climate change agenda in Fiji. Since
its establishment in 1993, the DOE has been situated in a number of ministries and it has
been upgraded once to a Ministry level (DOE, 2009). After the 2006 change in government
leadership, for instance, it used to be part of the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Tourism
and Environment and then the Ministry of Lands, Mineral Resources and Environment;
now, it is currently under the Ministry of Local Government, Urban Development, Housing
and Environment (DOE, 2008; DOE, 2009). An environment officer in the DOE is in
charge of climate change issues such as coordinating preparation of the second national
communication under the UNFCCC. In addition, the officer is involved in climate change-
related activities, including training other relevant government agencies, raising awareness
of local communities and coordinating adaptation projects.
There is a National Climate Change Country Team (NCCCT) in place chaired by the
DOE. This team had been dormant until recently partly due to the lack of proper coordination
of the DOE with other relevant key stakeholders of climate change issues. An interviewee
from the intergovernmental organisation group commented that it is one of the biggest
constraints that the DOE does not have the capacity to proactively play a role in facilitating
the incorporation of environmental factors happening in other different departments because
they do not have resources. Her comment was supported by another interviewee from the
DOE, who mentioned their critically understaffed situation.
252 M. Jiang et al.

However, under the leadership of its acting director, the DOE has made successful
efforts to reactivate the NCCCT. In February 2011, the team was reactivated to lead the
formulation of a national climate change policy. Consisting of representatives from various
sectors of both central and local government agencies including the tourism department,
NGOs, the private sector, crop agencies and other relevant development partners, the
NCCCT will act as a coordinating committee for Fiji’s climate change projects and as
the main platform to provide guidance and policy advice on all matters related to climate
change.
The Department of Tourism (DOT) is the government agency responsible for formulating
and implementing tourism policies. In 1994, it held ministry status, but it has since become a
sub-department under the Ministry of Public Enterprises, Tourism and Communications. The
DOT is now included in the newly re-established NCCCT and will hopefully be more involved
in climate change policy making. Another government agency is the Fiji Visitor Bureau, which
is the national tourism office promoting and marketing Fiji as a tourism destination.
Fiji Island Hotel and Tourism Association (FIHTA) is the key industry organisation
for Fiji’s tourism; its members account for more than 80% of the total room inventory in
Fiji. Representing the voice of the tourism industry, FIHTA had a major input in the TDP
2007–2016.
The primary data showed that the tourism sector in general is yet to perceive climate
change issues as a major concern. As an industry interviewee commented,
“...most of the tourism operators are aware of climate change risks and most people in tourism
are quite environmentally aware because they work with the environment as a part of what they
sell. But they are business people as well, which means they have to think about making money
today instead of focusing on [a] distant future.”

The need for infrastructure, manpower, human resources and service delivery were the
major concerns for the tourism sector in Fiji. A government interviewee stated that most of
the regional tourism strategies of the TDP 2007–2016 are not active due to a lack of human,
capital and land resources to implement them. A similar statement was made by another
interviewee from the industry, who commented that the government does not provide
sufficient infrastructure for the tourism industry to develop and operate in an environmentally
friendly way. According to the private sector representative, the industry is still at a stage
that people have to be taught to accept the standards of hotels.

7.5 Policy-making mechanisms

The policy-making mechanisms in Fiji involve participatory and consultation processes
through which policies are negotiated and developed with the involvement of relevant
stakeholders across government, industry, communities and other organisations. Take the
TDP 2007–2016 as an example. Funded by the Fijian government, a project to review the
tourism master plan was contracted and delivered by a group of consultants from Fiji and
Australia with administrative support from the Ministry of Tourism. Chaired by the Tourism
Minister, a national level steering committee, including representatives across government,
community and industry, guided the strategic development of the plan. Consultations were
also undertaken widely to gain a thorough understanding of the current status, concerns and
potential of Fiji tourism (STDC, 2007). As the plan states, its formulation has been through
a comprehensive and extensive consultation process with tourism stakeholders. This was
supported by a number of interviewees from the industry.
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 253

Foreign or international development agencies such as the UN and AusAID play an

indispensable role in Fiji’s climate change policy agenda by providing funding and assistance
in the policy-making process. Indeed, half of the nine explicit policies identified received
financial assistance from UNDP through the GEF. Among these, the tourism adaptation project
was inactive because of delay in funding approval by the GEF. There is a Development Partners
for Climate Change roundtable in place, which includes a group of Suva-based donors, major
organisations and other partners working in climate change. The roundtable holds meetings
once every six to eight weeks to coordinate different climate change initiatives.

7.6 Implementation of policies

Implementation of policies was raised as a major issue by interviewees across different
groups. A supranational organisation representative stated that “We have put in place
(environmental) policies that were amazing and would be of great use to us”, however,
it is very hard to mainstream policies into other ministerial areas and translate them into
legislation so that they can be implemented in reality. An interviewee from the donor
and development agency group supported this comment by saying that “in many cases,
policy is just an intention because a legally binding mechanism is missing”. A government
representative also said: “There is no consistency in policies because policies change so
often with the change of government. We are still trying to push the government to pass the
tourism development bill drafted in 2006.”
A number of interviewees from the supranational organisation group and the donor
agency group also expressed the need for more resources and capacity building to improve
implementation of policies. For instance, a supranational organisation representative
commented that there is a lack of awareness of environmental policies within other government
agencies, which makes implementation difficult. An NGO interviewee claimed the absence of
reporting systems that can tell people what policies are in place and how they are implemented.

8 Discussions

8.1 Policy conduciveness

The conduciveness of Fiji’s existing policy environment was evaluated against three factors
(Wong et al., 2010) as follows:
• Stakeholders’ commitment: The focal government agency for climate change, the DOE,
is showing a reasonable level of commitment to cope with climate change. The Director
of Environment has led the reestablishment of the NCCCT, which will soon formulate
a national climate change policy for Fiji. In terms of the tourism sector, although the
importance of climate change seems to be recognised at both government and industry
levels, there is a lack of awareness and understanding of this issue across the tourism
sector. Primary data collected from interviews indicated that tourism infrastructure has
been a major concern for the industry. Nevertheless, the inclusion of tourism in the re-
activated NCCCT shows a positive sign that the sector is likely to get more involved in
climate change policy making.
• Resources availability: Donor funding, such as money from AusAID and the UNDP,
seemed available to assist with the development of climate change policies in Fiji.
The development partners roundtable works on coordinating different climate change
254 M. Jiang et al.

initiatives undertaken by different donor and development agencies. However, funding

for tourism adaptation did not seem to be easily accessible, since the first tourism
adaptation project was inactive due to delay in funding approval by the GEF.
• Presence of an enabling policy mechanism: The existing policies and initiatives,
the participatory and consultation policy-making processes and the institutional
arrangement specific for climate change policy making and implementation, namely
the NCCCT, ensure an enabling policy mechanism exists for Fiji to further develop its
policies to assist the tourism sector to adapt to climate change.
Therefore, it can be concluded that Fiji does provide a reasonably conducive policy
environment for its tourism sector to adapt to climate change.

8.2 Policy gaps

Notwithstanding the positive developments, Fijian tourism still has a long way to go towards
optimal climate change adaptation. The Fijian government shows an intention to integrate
climate change into sectoral policies, but it is yet to be mainstreamed into the tourism
sector. Tables 4–5 and Tables 6–7 indicate, respectively, how explicit and implicit policies
have addressed tourism adaptation types and SIDST characteristics in Fiji. The tables
show that most of the initiatives were policy-level adaptation and research and education
was the second adaptation type relatively well addressed in the current policies. Positive
signs were observed that the significance of climate change and tourism development has
been recognised by the government at policy level: research is encouraged and funded to
strengthen the understanding of climate change and adaptation and awareness programmes
are undertaken to educate both government officials and communities. While these provide
a good foundation for further actions, other aspects of adaptation – particularly technical,
business management and behavioural adaptations – need to be more comprehensively
addressed. Such issues have been observed elsewhere (Roman et al., 2010).

Table 4 Explicit climate change policies and the corresponding adaptation types addressed in Fiji

Adaptation types
Policy 1 2 3 4 5
First National Communication under the UNFCCC √ √
2005
Tourism Climate Change Adaptation Projects/Summary √ √ √ √ √
Report of the Initial Stakeholder Workshop 2006
Climate Change Policy: the Framework 2007 √ √
Climate Change Section in Tourism Development Plan √
2007–2016
National Capacity Self-Assessment Project 2008 √
Establishment of a Carbon Trading Technical Team √
2008
Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Report 2009 √ √
REEEP’s Hotel Sector Energy Efficiency Project 2009 √ √
Note: *1 = technical; 2 = business management; 3 = behavioural; 4 = policy; 5 = research
and education
Source: Scott et al., 2008
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 255

Table 5 Explicit climate change policies and the corresponding SIDST characteristics addressed
in Fiji

SIDST characteristics
Policy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
First National Communication under the UNFCCC √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
2005
Tourism Climate Change Adaptation Project/ √ √ √ √ √ √
Summary report of the Initial Stakeholder Workshop
2006
Climate Change Policy : the Framework 2007 √
Climate Change Section in Tourism Development
Plan 2007–2016
National Capacity Self-Assessment Project 2008 √
Establishment of a Carbon Trading Team 2008 √
Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Report 2009 √ √
REEP’s Hotel Sector Energy Efficiency Project 2009
Note: *1 = limited size; 2 = limited natural resources; 3 = natural hazards; 4 = limited
water supply; 5 = low economic resilience; 6 = population growth and density;
7 = infrastructure; and 8 = limited funds and human resource skills
Source: Sem and Moore, 2009

Table 6 Implicit climate change policies and the corresponding adaptation types addressed
in Fiji

Adaptation types
Policy 1 2 3 4 5
Ecotourism and Village-based Tourism Policy and Strategy √ √
1998
Green Globe Programme 2003 √ √
Visitor Bureau Act 2004 √
Hotel Aid Act 1964 (revised to 2006) √
Tourism Development Plan 2007–2016 √ √ √
Coastal Development Requirement: 30m Setback (undated) √
National Emergency Operation Centre: Standard Operating √
Procedure (undated)
Disaster Management Plan 1995 √ √
Disaster Management Act 1998 √
Environmental Management Act 2005 √
Environment Management (EIA Process) Regulations 2007 √
Environment Management (Waste Disposal and Recycling) √
Regulations 2007
Forest Policy Statement 2007 √ √
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2007 √ √
Strategic Development plan 2007–2011 √ √ √
Note: *1 = technical; 2 = business management; 3 = behavioural; 4 = policy; 5 = research
and education
Source: Scott et al., 2008
256 M. Jiang et al.

Table 7 Implicit climate change policies and the corresponding SIDST characteristics addressed
in Fiji

SIDST characteristics
Policy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ecotourism and Village-based Tourism Policy and √
Strategy 1998
Green Globe Programme 2003 √
Visitor Bureau Act 2004 √
Hotel Aid Act 1964 (revised to 2006) √ √
Tourism Development Plan 2007–2016 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Coastal Development Requirement: 30m Setback √
(undated)
National Emergency Operation Centre: Standard √
Operating Procedure (undated)
Disaster Management Plan 1995 √ √
Disaster Management Act 1998 √ √
Environmental Management Act 2005 √ √
Environment Management (EIA Process) √
Regulations 2007
Environment Management (Waste Disposal and √
Recycling) Regulations 2007
Forest Policy Statement 2007 √ √ √ √
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2007 √ √
Strategic Development Plan 2007–2011 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Note: *1 = limited size; 2 = limited natural resources; 3 = natural hazards; 4 = limited
water supply; 5 = low economic resilience; 6 = population growth and density;
7 = infrastructure; and 8 = limited funds and human resource skills
Source: Sem and Moore, 2009

With respect to SIDST characteristics, the issue of limited funds and human resources
gained most coverage across policies, followed by the issue of limited natural resources. On
the contrary, the limited size and population growth and density are the two issues that seem
neglected and are addressed less by the existing policies.

8.3 Policy recommendations

To address the tourism adaptation issues that still remain as policy gaps in the current policy
environment of Fiji, a number of recommendations are made as below:
• put in place policy measures such as laws and regulations that facilitate implementation
of policies. In other words, ensure policies match the stated goals of the government
(Roman et al., 2011)
• raise awareness and understanding of tourism’s vulnerability to climate change impacts
through a concerted tourism sector education programme
• incorporate climate change into all tourism sector planning; for example, climate change
can form part of a wider risk management plan for the tourism sector (Becken, 2005)
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 257

• provide or seek sufficient funding to undertake and implement tourism adaptation

projects that demonstrate adaptation initiatives, investigate climate change impacts on
the tourism sector and explore adaptation options
• strengthen the public–private partnership in tourism adaptation to climate change and
develop adaptations in technical, business management and behavioural aspects that are
weakly addressed in the existing policies
• improve coordination of climate change adaptation between sectors and government
agencies and take more measures to deal with weakly addressed SIDST characteristics
in the existing policies such as limited size, water, low economic resilience, population
growth and density and infrastructure.

9 Conclusion
The policy analysis allowed a comprehensive understanding of the existing policy
environment for tourism adaptation to climate change in Fiji. The existing policy environment
is generally conducive for the tourism sector to adapt to climate change, although the sector
needs to deal with challenges in raising awareness, building financial and human resources
capacities and ensuring policy implementation.
Eight explicit climate change policies, together with a range of implicit policies, enable
Fiji generally and its tourism sector more specifically to adapt to climate change impacts.
Three policies are explicitly concerned with both tourism and climate change, namely, the
GEF-funded Tourism Climate Change Adaptation Project/Summary Report of the Initial
Stakeholder Workshop 2006; the Climate Change section in the TDP 2007–2016; and
REEEP’s Hotel Sector Energy Efficiency Project in Fiji 2009. The Fiji tourism master plan
TDP 2007–2016 identifies climate change as a risk and stresses the need to understand
its impacts on the tourism sector. Nevertheless, climate change is yet to be integrated and
mainstreamed into the development of tourism in Fiji.
Due to its close relations with natural resources and the environment, the tourism sector
does benefit from adaptations of other sectors such as water, environmental protection and
disaster risk management. Climate change risks are threatening the sustainable growth of the
tourism industry and therefore, tourism-specific adaptation strategies need to be developed
to assist the sector in protecting and growing local livelihoods in Fiji. The Fijian government
will need to collaborate with the private sector, communities and other stakeholders to
address those adaptation gaps identified through this policy analysis.

References
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Tourism and Transport Working Groups (2009) Study of
International Visitor Flows and Greenhouse Gas Emissions for a Template to Examine the Impact
on APEC Economies of Future Market-based Measures Applying to International Transport,
APEC Project No. TPT 02/2009, APEC, Singapore.
Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) (2009) 09 Pacific Economic Survey:
Engaging with the World, AusAID, Canberra.
Becken, S. (2005) ‘Harmonising climate change adaptation and mitigation: the case of tourist resorts
in Fiji’, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 15, pp.381–393.
258 M. Jiang et al.

Becken, S. (2007) ‘Tourists’ perception of international air travel’s impact on the global climate and
potential climate change policies’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp.351–368.
Becken, S. and Clapcott, R. (2011) ‘National tourism policy for climate change’, Journal of Policy
Research in Tourism, Leisure & Events, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.1–17.
Becken, S. and Hay, J.E. (2007) Tourism and Climate Change: Risks and Opportunities, Channel View
Publications, Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto.
Bird, D. (2009) ‘The use of questionnaires for acquiring information on public perception of natural
hazards and risk mitigation: a review of current knowledge and practice’, Natural Hazards and
Earth System Sciences, Vol. 9, pp.1307–1325.
Calgaro, E. (2010) Building Resilient Tourism Destination Futures in a World of Uncertainty: Assessing
Destination Vulnerability in Khao Lak, Patong and Phi Phi Don, Thailand to the 2004 Tsunami,
Department of Environment and Geography, Macquarie University, Sydney.
Campbell, J. (2009) ‘Islandness: vulnerability and resilience in Oceania’, Shima: The International
Journal of Research in Island Cultures, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.85–97.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (2010) The World Factbook, CIA, [online] Available from CIA
website: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html (Accessed 16
August 2010)
Cheer, J. (2010) ‘Kicking goals or offside: is tourism development in the pacific helping progress
towards the MDGs?’, Pacific Economic Bulletin, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.151–161.
Compston, H. (2009) Policy Networks and Policy Change: Putting Policy Network Theory to the Test,
Palgrave Macmillan, UK.
Connell, J. and Brown, R.P.C. (2005) Remittances in the Pacific: An Overview, Asian Development
Bank, Philippines.
Considine, M. (1994) Public Policy: A Critical Approach, Macmillan, Melbourne.
DeLacy, T. and Lipman, G. (2010) ‘Green earth travel: moving to carbon clean destinations’, in Scott,
C. (Ed.): Tourism and the Implications of Climate Change: Issues and Actions, Emerald Group
Publishing, Bingley, UK.
Department of Environment of Fiji (DOE) (2007) Climate Change Policy: The Framework, Suva, Fiji.
Department of Environment of Fiji (DOE) (2008) The DOE Annual Report 2007, Suva, Fiji.
Department of Environment of Fiji (DOE) (2009) The National Capacity Self-Assessment Project –
Fiji Final Report, Suva, Fiji.
Dredge, D. and Jenkins, J. (2007) Tourism Planning and Policy, John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd,
Milton.
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) (2008) 2008 Statistical Yearbook
for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific, Bangkok.
Edgell, S.D.L., Allen, M.D., Smith, G. and Swanson, J.R. (2008) Tourism Policy and Planning:
Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Elsevier, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK.
Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics (FIBOS) (2009) Fiji Facts and Figures as at 1st July 2009, Suva, Fiji.
Fiji Ministry of Tourism, United Nations’ World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and Global
Environment Facility (GEF) (2006) Adaptation to Climate Change in the Tourism Sector in the
Fiji Islands: Summary Report of the Initial Stakeholder Workshop, Fiji Ministry of Tourism,
Suva, Fiji.
Forsyth, P., Dwyer, L. and Spurr, R. (2007) Climate Change Policies and Australian Tourism: Scoping
Study of the Economic Aspects, Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre (STCRC),
Gold Coast, Queensland.
Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Secretariat
of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) (2009) Pacific Adaptation to Climate
Change – Fiji Islands: Report of in-Country Consultations, Suva, Fiji.
 Tourism adaptation to climate change 259

Gossling, S., Peeters, P. and Scott, D. (2008) ‘Consequences of climate policy for international tourist
arrivals in developing countries’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 5, pp.873–901.
Government of Fiji (2005) Fiji’s First National Communication Under the Framework Convention on
Climate Change, Suva, Fiji.
Government of Fiji (2006) Strategic Development Plan 2007–2011, Parliamentary paper number 92,
Suva, Fiji.
Government of Fiji (2010) About Fiji, [online], Available from Fiji government online portal website:
http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ (Accessed 18 September 2010).
Gunn, C.A. (1994) Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases, 3rd ed., Taylor and Francis,
Washington, DC.
Hall, C.M. (2009) ‘Archetypal approaches to implementation and their implications for tourism
policy’, Tourism Recreation Research, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp.235–245.
Hall, C.M. and Higham, J. (2005) (Eds.): Tourism, Recreation and Climate Change, Channel View
Publications, Clevedon.
Hall, C.M. and Jenkins, J.M. (1995) Tourism and Public Policy, Routledge, London.
Harrison, D. (2010) ‘Tourism challenges for Pacific Island states: the case of Fiji’, Paper for Fiji
Economy Update, University of South Pacific, July 2010, Suva, Fiji.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation
and Vulnerability Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment, Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, in Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van
der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (Eds.): Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Keeley, J. and Scoones, I. (2003) Understanding Environmental Policy Processes: Cases from Africa,
Earthscan, London.
Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.G. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry, Sage Publications Inc., Beverly Hills,
California.
MaClellan, N., Keough, L., Richards, J-A., Pride, J., Ensor, J., Dent, K., Coates, B., Elliott, M. and
Garman, J. (2009) ‘The future is here: climate change in the Pacific’, in Field, N. (Ed.): Oxfam
Briefing Paper 2009, Oxfam, Carlton.
McKercher, B., Prideaux, B., Cheung, C. and Law, R. (2010) ‘Achieving voluntary reductions in the
carbon footprint of tourism and climate change’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 18, No. 3,
pp.297–317.
Méheux, K., Dominey-Howes, D. and Lloyd, K. (2007) ‘Natural hazards impacts in small island
developing states: a review of current knowledge and future research needs’, Natural Hazards,
Vol. 40, pp.429–446.
Minichiello, V., Aroni, R., Timewell, E. and Alexander, L. (1995) In-depth Interviewing: Principles,
Techniques, Analysis, 2nd ed., Longman Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne.
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric (NIWA) Research (2007) Pacific Islands Suffer Signs of
Climate Change, NIWA Science, Auckland.
Pacific Institute of Public Policy (2008) Small can be Beautiful: The Particular Needs of Micro States
in Trade Policy, Discussion Paper, 04, 4 [online], Availableat http://pacificpolicy.org/index.
php?option=com rubberdoc&view=category&id=58&Itemid=93:
Parliament of Fiji (2010) About Parliament, Avalaible at Parliament of Fiji website: http://www.
parliament.gov.fj/about/index.aspx (accessed 16 September 2010)
Pasteur, K. (2001) Tools for Sustainable Livelihoods: Policy Analysis, Institute of Development
Studies, the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, 3rd ed., Sage Publications, Inc.,
Thousand Oaks.
Pentelow, L. and Scott, D. (2010) ‘The implications of climate change mitigation policy and oil
price volatility for tourism arrivals to the Caribbean’, Tourism and Hospitality Planning and
Development, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp.301–315.
 260 M. Jiang et al.

Reserve Bank of Fiji (2010) Chartbook Tables, Suva, Fiji.

Roman, C., Lynch, A. and Dominey-Howes, D. (2010) ‘Uncovering the essence of the climate
adaptation problem – a case study of the tourism sector at Alpine Shire, Victoria, Australia’,
Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Planning, Vol. 3, pp.237–252.
Roman, C., Lynch, A. and Dominey-Howes, D. (2011) ‘What is the goal? framing the climate change
adaptation question through a problem-oriented approach’, Climate, Weather and Society, Vol. 3,
No. 1, pp.16–30.
Scheyvens, R. and Momsen, J. (2008) ‘Tourism in small island states: from vulnerability to strengths’,
Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp.491–510.
Scott, D., De Freitas, C. and Matzarakis, A. (2008) ‘Adaptation in the tourism and recreation sector’,
in Ebi, K.L. and Burton, I. (Eds.): Biometeorology for Adaptation to Climate Variability and
Change, Kluwer Academic Publishing, Dordrecht.
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) (2008) Pacific Adaptation to
Climate Change Project Description, SPREP, Apia.
Sem, G. and Moore, R. (2009) ‘The impact of climate change on the development prospects of the
least developed countries and small island developing states’, United Nations Office of the High
Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small
Island Developing States, New York.
Simpson, M.C., Gossling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. and Gladin, E. (2008) Climate Change Adaptation
and Mitigation in the Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices, UNEP, University of
Oxford, UNWTO and WMO, Paris.
South Pacific Tourism Organisation (SPTO) (2007) South Pacific Action Strategy for Green Tourism,
prepared by TRIP Consultants, Suva, Fiji.
SPREP (2005) Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change 2006–2015, SPREP: Apia,
Samoa.
Sustainable Tourism Development Consortium (STDC) (2007) Fiji Tourism Development Plan
2007–2016, Department of Tourism, Suva, Fiji.
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2008) Climate Change and Tourism –
Responding to Global Challenges, UNWTO, Madrid, Span.
Wong, E., Mistilis, N. and Dwyer, L. (2010) ‘A framework for analysing intergovernmental
collaboration – the case of ASEAN tourism’, Tourism Management, in press, Available online 8
April 2010.
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2011) Country Report, [online] from http://www.wttc.
org/eng/Tourism_Research/Economic_Research/Country_Reports/ (Accessed 28 July 2011)

View publication stats