Circulatory System

The circulatory system includes the heart, blood, and a huge network of blood vessels that carry
blood all over the body. The job of the circulatory system is to deliver oxygen to cells all over the body and
then to carry out waste product like carbon dioxide.

The heart is an organ made out of muscle. It’s job is to pump blood through the body. The heart has four
main sections or chambers:

 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Left atrium
 Left ventricle

Blood flows into the right atrium through two large blood vessels called the superior vena cava (from
the upper body) and the inferior vena cava (from the lower body). From there blood moves to the right
ventricle. It then travels to the lungs to get oxygen.

Blood coming back from the lungs enters the left atrium and then into the left ventricle. From there it
leaves the heart through the aortic valve and goes into the aorta. This is the largest artery in the body, and it
leads to all parts of the body.The circulatory system also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ
system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the body to nourish it and help to fight
diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis.

The circulatory system is often seen to be composed of both the cardiovascular system, which
distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. These are two separate systems. The
passage of lymph for example takes a lot longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the
heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and
nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph
is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered
from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the
lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning
'heart'-'vessel') system comprises the blood, heart, and blood
vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the
lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the
interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed

cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the
network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate
groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system,
on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route
for excess interstitial fluid to get returned to the blood. The more
primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Circulatory_System_en.svg
Human Cardiovascular System

Cross section of a human artery

The essential components of the human cardiovascular

system are the heart, blood, and blood vessels.[5] It includes: the
pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the lungs where blood is
oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest
of the body to provide oxygenated blood. An average adult contains
five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for
approximately 7% of their total body weight.[6] Blood consists of
plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the
digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the
nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Closed cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network
of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial
fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite
direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is not closed.

Heart

The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human
heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary
circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The
right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium
is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly
oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle
to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body.

View from the front, which means the right side of the heart
is on the left of the diagram (and vice-versa).

Coronary circulation

Coronary circulatory system provides a blood supply

to the myocardium (the heart muscle). It arises from the
aorta by two coronary arteries, the left and the right, and
after nourishing the myocardium blood returns through the
coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one
into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through its
opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian
valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the
heart chambers.
Pulmonary circulation

Circulation showing pulmonary and systemic circuits.

Main article: Pulmonary circulation

The pulmonary circulatory system is the portion of the

cardiovascular system in which oxygen-depleted blood is pumped away
from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned,
oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.

Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava,
enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve
(right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then
pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs
in the lungs, whereby CO
2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich
blood to the left atrium.

Systemic circulation

Systemic circulation is the circulation of the blood to all

parts of the body except the lungs. Systemic circulation is the
portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated
blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle
where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary
circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted
blood back to the heart. Systemic circulation is, distance-wise,
much longer than pulmonary circulation, transporting blood to
every part of the body.

Oxygen transportation

An animation of a typical human red blood cell cycle in the circulatory system. This animation
occurs at real time (20 seconds of cycle) and shows the red blood cell deform as it enters capillaries, as well
as changing color as it alternates in states of oxygenation along the circulatory system.
Main article: Blood § Oxygen transport

About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level
pressure is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the
other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of
oxygen in mammals and many other species.

Development

Magnetic resonance angiography of aberrant subclavian artery

The development of the circulatory system initially occurs by the

process of vasculogenesis. The human arterial and venous systems
develop from different embryonic areas. While the arterial system
develops mainly from the aortic arches, the venous system arises from
three bilateral veins during weeks 4 – 8 of human development.
Arterial development

` The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from
week 4 of human development. Aortic arch 1 almost completely regresses except to form the maxillary
arteries. Aortic arch 2 also completely regresses except to form the stapedial arteries. The definitive
formation of the arterial system arise from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6, while aortic arch 5 completely regresses.

The dorsal aortae are initially bilateral and then fuse to form the definitive dorsal aorta.
Approximately 30 posterolateral branches arise off the aorta and will form the intercostal arteries, upper and
lower extremity arteries, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries. The lateral branches of the aorta form
the definitive renal, suprarrenal and gonadal arteries. Finally, the ventral branches of the aorta consist of the
vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior
mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac
arteries.

Venous development

The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the
cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus.

Measurement techniques

 Electrocardiogram—for cardiac electrophysiology

 Sphygmomanometer and stethoscope—for blood pressure
 Pulse meter—for cardiac function (heart rate, rhythm, dropped beats)
 Pulse—commonly used to determine the heart rate in absence of certain cardiac pathologies
 Heart rate variability—used to measure variations of time intervals between heart beats
 Nail bed blanching test—test for perfusion
 Vessel cannula or catheter pressure measurement—pulmonary wedge pressure or in older animal
experiments.

Other animals

Evolution of circulation in vertebrates

- fish, amphibians and mammals. Numbers: 1
- heart, 2 - vessels of the systemic
circulation, 3 - vessels of the pulmonary
circulation. Color means: -- - venous blood;
-- - arterial blood; -- - mixed blood.

Two-chambered heart of a fish

The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for

example, earthworms) and cephalopods (squids, octopuses and relatives) are
closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and
birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system.

In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped
through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body
tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is,
therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).

In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always
completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart.
 In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped
with a sphincter muscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the
incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows
from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to
ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature.

Birds and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart
chambers; it is though. That the four-chambered heart of birds evolved independently from that of
mammals.

Open circulatory system

The open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the
organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this
combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph. Muscular movements by the animal during
locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited.
When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia).

Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is
composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly Na+, Cl-, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+), and organic compounds (mostly
carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.

There are free-floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod
immune system.

Absence of circulatory system

Flatworms, such as this Helicometra sp., lack specialized circulatory

organs

Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including

flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes). Their body cavity has no lining or
enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively
branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to
all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also
restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can
diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently every
cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity
(which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily
fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.

History of discovery
Human anatomical chart of blood vessels, with heart, lungs, liver and kidneys included. Other organs
are numbered and arranged around it. Before cutting out the figures on this page, Vesalius suggests that
readers glue the page onto parchment and gives instructions on how to assemble the pieces and paste the
multilayered figure onto a base "muscle man" illustration. "Epitome", fol.14a. HMD Collection, WZ 240
V575dhZ 1543.

The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century
BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical
and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians
thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every
member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it
represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.

In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to
the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India. He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the
arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007). The valves of the heart were discovered by a
physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly
understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists
assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.

The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a
property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life
bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that
entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with
reversed flow of blood.

In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and
identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate
functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial
blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating
organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver.
The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood
moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to
the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the
pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created
and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.

In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the
Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled
between the ventricles." Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular
function", and "had a vision of blood circulation" in his Treatise on Pulse. While also refining Galen's
erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of
the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. The
pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and
contraction."[12]

In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the
process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology.
Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon

"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct
pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as
some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow
through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there
with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there
form the vital spirit..."

In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary
circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the
pulmonary artery and vein," a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than
400 years. Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the
entire body.

Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although
his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the
"Manuscript of Paris" (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this
description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three
copies of the book survived, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution
of Servetus by religious authorities. Better known was its discovery by Vesalius's successor at Padua,
Realdo Colombo, in 1559.

Image of veins from William Harvey's Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu

Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who

had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their
function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published
Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in
1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection
between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not
just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of
blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite
different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs." This work,
with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able
to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello
Malpighi in 1661.

In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in
the circulatory system."

http://www.epubbud.com/read.php?g=QTG2WAPX&p=4&two=1

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system
 Resume Sistem Peredaran Darah

Darah merupakan salah satu komponen sistem sirkulasi (peredaran darah) yang sangat penting.
Darah dan sistem peredaran darah memiliki fungsi sebagai berikut:

1. Mengedarkan sari makanan (nutrisi) dari sistem pencernaan makanan ke seluruh sel-sel tubuh
2. Transportasi oksigen dari paru-paru ke sel-sel seluruh tubuh, dan transportasi karbon dioksida dari sel-sel
seluruh tubuh ke paru-paru
3. Pengangkutan sisa metabolisme dari sel-sel tubuh ke organ ekskresi (pengeluaran)
4. Pengangkutan hormon dari kelenjar endokrin ke sel-sel atau jaringan target
5. Membantu keseimbangan cairan tubuh
6. Membantu dalam mengatur suhu tubuh

Komposisi Darah
Komposisi darah diperoleh dengan cara memutar darah dalam suatu tabung dengan kecepatan tinggi.
Proses pemutaran darah tersebut dinamakan sentrifugasi. Dari hasil sentrifugasi, darah akan terpisah
menjadi dua bagian, yaitu bagian bawah yang padat dan bagian atas berupa cairan. Cairan pada bagian atas
adalah plasma darah (55%), sedangkan bagian bawah terdapat sel-sel darah (45%).

Plasma Darah
Plasma darah mengisi sekitar 55% dari total volume darah. Salah satu fungsi plasma darah yaitu
mengatur keseimbangan osmosis darah di dalam tubuh. Pada manusia, plasma darah tersusun atas air (90%)
dan bahan-bahan terlarut (10%). Berikut ini komposisi plasma darah beserta fungsinya.

Sel-Sel Darah
Terdapat sekitar 45% sel-sel darah di dalam darah.
Sel-sel darah tersusun atas sel darah merah (eritrosit), sel
darah putih (leukosit), dan keping darah (trombosit). Untuk
lebih memahami komposisi sel-sel darah dalam tubuh
manusia.

1) Sel darah merah

Sel darah merah (eritrosit) berfungsi mengangkut
atau mengedarkan oksigen dan karbon dioksida.
Kemampuan mengikat oksigen dan karbon dioksida oleh
sel darah merah adalah karena adanya hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin adalah suatu protein yang memiliki daya ikat
kuat terhadap O2 dan CO2.
 2) Sel darah putih
Sel darah putih (leukosit) berfungsi dalam pertahanan
dan kekebalan tubuh. Leukosit akan mempertahankan
tubuh dari serangan penyakit. Fungsi tersebut didukung
oleh kemampuan leukosit untuk bergerak amoeboid
(seperti Amoeba) dan sifat fagositosis (memangsa atau
memakan). Berdasarkan ada atau tidaknya granula di dalam
sitoplasmanya, leukosit dibagi menjadi leukosit tidak
bergranula (agranulosit) dan leukosit bergranula
(granulosit).

a) Agranulosit
Agranulosit merupakan leukosit yang tidak memiliki granula pada sitoplasmanya. Terdapat dua
jenis agranulosit, yaitu limfosit dan monosit. Limfosit adalah leukosit yang tidak dapat bergerak dan
memiliki satu inti sel. Limfosit berfungsi dalam membentuk antibodi. Limfosit berukuran antara 8–14 μm.
Monosit berukuran lebih besar daripada limfosit, yaitu 14–19 μm. Monosit memiliki inti berbentuk
menyerupai ginjal.

b) Granulosit
Granulosit merupakan leukosit yang memiliki granula pada sitoplasmanya. Berdasarkan sifat-sifat
granul yang dimilikinya, granulosit dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu neutrofil, basofil, eosinophil.

3) Keping darah
Keping darah disebut juga dengan trombosit. Trombosit berbentuk bulat, lonjong, bahkan berbentuk
tidak beraturan. Trombosit tidak memiliki inti dan berukuran lebih kecil dibandingkan eritrosit. Jumlah
trombosit sekitar 250.000–400.000 dalam setiap milimeter kubik darah. Trombosit dapat hidup selama
delapan hari. Trombosit berfungsi dalam proses penggumpalan darah. Mengenai peran trombosit
dalam penggumpalan darah, akan dibahas pada materi selanjutnya.

Mekanisme Penggumpalan Darah contohnya yaitu apabila pembuluh darah rusak atau terpotong
karena luka, darah akan mengalir keluar dari pembuluh darah. Akan tetapi, darah tersebut akan berhenti
mengalir keluar karena terjadi proses penggumpalan darah. Di dalam plasma darah terdapat trombosit yang
akan pecah apabila menyentuh permukaan yang kasar. Jika trombosit pecah, enzim tromboplastin yang
dikandungnya akan keluar bercampur dengan plasma darah. Selain trombosit, di plasma darah terdapat
protombin. Protombin akan diubah menjadi trombin oleh enzim tromboplastin. Perubahan protombin
menjadi trombin dipicu oleh ion kalsium (Ca2+). Protombin adalah suatu protein plasma yang
pembentukannya memerlukan vitamin K. Trombin akan berfungsi sebagai enzim yang dapat mengubah
fibrinogen menjadi fibrin. Fibrinogen adalah suatu protein yang terdapat dalam plasma. Adapun fibrin
adalah protein berupa benang-benang yang tidak larut dalam plasma. Benang-benang fibrin yang terbentuk
akan saling bertautan sehingga sel-sel darah merah beserta plasma akan terjaring dan membentuk gumpalan.
Jaringan baru akan terbentuk menggantikan gumpalan tersebut dan luka akan penutup.

Golongan Darah dan Transfusi Darah

Berdasarkan komposisi aglutinogen dan aglutininnya, golongan darah manusia dibedakan menjadi
golongan darah A, B, AB, dan O. Penggolongan darah ABO ditemukan oleh seorang ahli imunologi Austria,
Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943). Penggolongan darah ini berdasarkan atas terdapatnya dua jenis aglutinogen,
yaitu aglutinogen A dan aglutinogen B. Aglutinogen dan aglutinin adalah kandungan protein di dalam darah.
Aglutinogen merupakan protein berupa antigen, sedangkan agglutinin merupakan protein berupa antibodi.
Selain sistem ABO, terdapat penggolongan daerah lainnya, yaitu sistem rhesus (rh). Sistem ini didasarkan
atas ada atau tidaknya aglutinogen rhesus di dalam darah. Landsteiner menemukan sistem rh ini pada
percobaannya terhadap kera Macaca rhesus. Pada sistem rh, apabila darah seseorang mengandung
aglutinogen rhesus maka orang tersebut termasuk rhesus positif (rh+). Adapun jika tidak mengandung
aglutinogen rhesus, orang tersebut termasuk rhesus negatif (rh–). Penggolongan darah ABO berperan dalam
transfusi darah. Transfusi darah adalah proses pemindahan darah dari tubuh seseorang ke dalam tubuh
orang lain. Orang yang menerima darah disebut penerima atau resipien. Adapun orang yang memberikan
darahnya disebut pemberi atau donor. Hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam tranfusi darah adalah jenis
aglutinogen donor dan aglutinin resipien. Aglutinin memiliki kemampuan untuk menggumpalkan eritrosit.
Jadi, apabila aglutinogen donor bercampur dengan aglutinin resipien, darah resipien akan menggumpal.
Darah donor yang bercampur dalam tubuh resipien akan dianggap sebagai antigen oleh tubuh.

Gangguan dan Penyakit yang Berkaitan dengan Darah

Terdapat beberapa gangguan dan penyakit yang berkaitan dengan darah. Gangguan tersebut dapat
disebabkan oleh faktor fisiologis maupun faktor genetik. Antara lain sebagai berikut:

a. Anemia
Anemia merupakan penyakit berupa kurangnya kadar hemoglobin, Fe, dan eritrosit di dalam tubuh.
Dalam keadaan normal, kadar Hb dalam darah yaitu 12–16 gram%. Adapun jumlah eritrosit normal yaitu
5,3 juta/ mm3 darah. Seorang yang menderita anemia memiliki gejala muka pucat, lesu, sakit kepala, dan
gangguan menstruasi.

b. Leukemia
Pada leukemia, produksi sel darah putih melebihi batas normal. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
pertumbuhan abnormal pada jaringan yang memproduksi sel-sel darah. Leukemia dapat disebabkan oleh
infeksi virus, terkena sinar radio aktif, terkena zat-zat kimia, serta faktor keturunan (genetik). Penderita
leukimia memiliki ciri-ciri pucat, lesu, demam, dan pendarahan..

c. Thalasemia
Thalasemia adalah suatu penyakit yang diakibatkan oleh gangguan produksi hemoglobin dan
eritrosit. Thalasemia merupakan penyakit genetik atau keturunan. Gejala penyakit thalasemia sangat
bervariasi, di antaranya anemia, pembesaran limfa, bentuk tulang abnormal, dan gangguan pertumbuhan.

d. Sickle Cell Anemia

Sickle cell anemia adalah suatu penyakit yang ditandai dengan bentuk sel darah merah menyerupai
bulan sabit. Sel darah merah yang berbentuk bulan sabit tersebut mudah untuk saling tindih pada pembuluh
darah. Akibatnya, sel darah tersebut menyumbat pembuluh darah dan terjadi hemolisis (pecah). Selain itu,
bentuk bulan sabit berakibat kurangnya daya ikat terhadap oksigen.