142 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

mountains, hills, rainfall, and type of soil. Political process which was
active from ancient to modern times contributed to the shaping of
various social groups in the society, and the process of social interaction
of people belonging to these groups brought into existence cultural
distinctiveness of each sub-region. The culture of Maharashtra is a
product of integration of these sub-regional cultures and the elite
culture of the ruling classes. From the days of the rule of Shivaji to
the downfall of the Peshwa regime, the rulers of Maharashtra were
persons who had settled in Satara and Pune region. This gave
prominent place to the culture of the Desh in comparison to the
cultures of the remaining four sub-regions. The Marathi spoken by
the elite of this sub-region attained the status of the Standard language,
and it was accepted as the language of literary creation at the State
level. The Marathi spoken by the masses living in the remaining four
sub-regions was to some extent reduced to the status of a dialect.
After independence India accepted the democratic form of
government. One of the consequences of this step was to provide
common people the right to vote and there by empowering them
politically. As a result political aspirations of the common people were
awakened posing challenge to the established traditional notions of
cultural superiority. Manifestation of regional cultures in the literary
works of renowned writers began to take place and a new form of
regional literature came into existence. At the level of the government
due note was taken of this changing social consciousness, and
encouragement was provided to the expression of regional cultures.
Importance given to the regional literary conferences and arts is an
indication of this changing social reality. In recent times increasing
use of highly advanced media of communication, in social affairs such
as television, telephone, computer, and satellite, is removing
geographical barriers on communication between one region and
another. At the same time efforts are being made to preserve distinctive
sub-regional cultural traditions which are connected with the identity
of the masses, and merge them with the mainstream cultural tradition.
In view of this, even today, it is important to take cognizance of the
distinctive features of the sub- regional cultures. It is from this point
of view, that characteristic features of sub-regional culture of
Maharashtra is described in the following pages.
Distinctive Features of Sub-regional
Culture of Maharashtra
Konkan: A narrow coastal strip admeasuring 45 to 90 Kms. in width,
and 720 Kms in. length is known from ancient times as Konkan. In
course of time Konkan was divided into two divisions, namely, North-
Konkan covering an area from Southern part of Surat district to the
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 143

northern part of Ratnagiri district and South-Konkan comprising an

area from northern part of Ratnagiri district to the Southern part of
Karwar district. The historical nomenclature. of north-Konkan is
Aparanta (extreme Western tip). According to Mahamahopadhya
Mirashi, the earliest historical mention of Aparanta occurs in the edict
of emperor Ashoka. The historian Shejwalkar concedes to the point
that Aparanta is Konkan.
According to the historian Rajwade the Saptapatal which included
Tal, Rasatal, Mahital, Fatal etc, is the coastal Konkan, and in ancient
times there was no contiguous region of Konkan. There were several
kingdoms which survived for serveral years. Apparently Rajwade did
not realise that in the most ancient times Konkan was Known as
Aparanta. As Konkan is a coastal region it is possible that what are
known as Saptapatal are probably seven ports. Commentator Vallabh,
while referring to Aparanta mentioned by Kalidas in Raghuvansh uses
the second nomenclature Konkan. In the beginning this region was
inhabited by people belonging to the Naga tribe, and one of the Naga
lineages known as Kunkan had established its rule over the region.
Hence, this region came to be known as ‘Sapta Kunkan’ that is Konkan,
instead of ‘Sapta patal’. The Nagar Brahmins of Gujarat call themselves
Kunkan Brahmins even today. From 4th Cent. B.C. onwards Konkan
has been referred to in ancient literature. Reference to Konkan occurs
in literary works like Mahabharat, Harivansh, Vishnupuran,
Brihatsamhita, Rajatarangini, Periplus etc., in the Chalukyan
inscriptions and in the accounts of Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, Hu-en-
tsung, Ibna Batuta, and Al-biruni. Ptolemy uses the terms ‘Larika’ for
Gujrat and the north Konkan, and ‘Arika’ for South Konkan. Since 5th
Cent, B. C. Bharuch, Chaul, Vanavasi, Navasari, Sopara, Baleyapattan,
Chandrapur and Kalyan, the main trade centres, had tradelinks with
Babylone, Rome and other places. There are several views regarding
how the region acquired the name Konkan. According to one view,
the region got its name Konkan from the name of the mother of
Parashuram which was Kunkana.7
Mauryas, Kshatrapas, Satavahanas,Traikutakas, Kalchuris,
Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Shilaharas are the known dynasties
which ruled over Konkan.8 After the end of the Yadav dynasty, a part
of Konkan was under the rule of the Hindu dynasty of Vijayanagar till
1377 A. D. In the mean time probably this region was under the rule of
the local chieftains. The Bahamani kings established their control over
several ports in Konkan around 1390 A. D. They conquered the entire
coast of Konkan in 1429 A. D. Inspite of their several invasions the
Bahamanis did not succeed in gaining complete control over Konkan.
Even Mohammad Gavan, the well- known Minister of the Bahamanis
144 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

did not succeed in conquering the entire region. Towards the end of
the Bahamani rule, that is around 1489 A. D., part of the northern
Konkan was in the possession of the Sultan of Gujarat, and a large
part of the Southern Konkan was in the possession of the Bahamanis.
After this the Nizam dynasty of Ahmednagar established their rule
over this region. With the consent of the Nizam rulers, the Portuguese
consolidated their position after establishing their factories at Chaul
and Revadanda around 1516 A. D. Some part of Konkan was in the
possession of the Adilshahi dynasty of Vijapur.
It is essential to make a mention to the role of the Portuguese power
in shaping the destiny of Konkan besides the Muslim rulers. Even
prior to the Portuguese, people from Abyssinia and other parts of East
Africa were arriving in India. They known as Habshi since they came
from Arab-Al-Habis in North-East Africa. They were also known as
Siddi. In the opinion of the historian Orme the Habshis from Abyssinia
who settled in India, invited, a large number of their countrymen to
India or brought them as slaves. The African Negroes were also
similarly brought to India as slaves. The Habshis and the Negroes
intermarried amongst themselves. They also had the contact either
marital or extra-marital, with the local Muslim and Non-Muslim
population. This resulted in the emergence of a new ethnic group
different from the local Muslim and non-Muslim population in respect
of their body form, skincolour, and appearance. This ethnic group is
known as Habshi or Siddi. The Portuguese converted thousands of
Hindus to Christianity through inducements or through force. These
processes have contributed the Muslims, Habshis, and Christians who
either came from outside or were converted into these religions, to
the native population. Social and Cultural consequences of this were
inevitable.9
The process of the colonization of Konkan might have been going on
from ancient times. The legend of Parashuram establishing a colony
of Chitpavan Brahmins near Chiplun is well-known. Due to Maritime
trade, contact of foreigners with Konkan was natural from ancient
days. Many of them settled in Konkan permanently. Among these were
Ionian Greeks known by the name Yavan. The Abyssinians and people
belonging to other ethnic groups from Africa, who were brought in as
slaves also became permanent residents of the Konkan. As already
stated, Emperor Ashoka had sent his missionaries to Konkan with a
view to promoting Buddhism among the foreigners who were there in
large number. In a treatise entitled “Samant Pasadik” it has been
mentioned that nearly thirtysix thousand foreigners had embraced
Buddhism as a result of the efforts of these missionaries. The
demographic composition of Konkan in this historic period shows the
influence of several nationalities and ethnic groups. The physical
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 145

characteristics of the Habshis are visible among some Muslims, and

also among Katkaris and Thakurs. Among Katkaris, there is a sub
group called Sidikatkari. Frizzly hair are to be seen among some Thakurs.10
The economy of Konkan in historic times was dependent upon
maritime trade and ancillary industries, and also on the plantations
growing coconut, betel-nut, cashew, mango, jack-fruit, Konkam, Vari,
Nachani and rice. These occupations provided jobs to the people in
Konkan. However, the industrial revolution in England rendered
sailing boats obsolete and they were replaced by steamers which
resulted in quicker and large-scale transportation of goods. As a result
of this revolution in the means of transport, Bombay emerged as an
important port on the western coast rendering Chaul, Dabhol, Rajpuri,
Mahad and other historic ports obsolete. The traditional agriculture
in Konkan suffered a set-back during the British rule. During this
period, the importance of Bombay as an international port and a major
industrial city increased and it became a major centre of employment.
All these changes cluminated in the large-scale migration of working
population of Konkan to Bombay. The aged, the children and the
females mainly stayed in Konkan expecting money-orders from their
relatives in Bombay. In recent times, with the construction of Konkan
railway, and implementation of other industrial projects, the past
glory of Konkan will be regained.
People in Konkan speak Marathi language. A dialect of Marathi
known as Konkani is spoken in South Konkan and Goa region. The
Marathi spoken in Kokani is characterized by the use of nasals and
intonations. In the formation of folk culture of Konkan, castes such as
Agri, Kunbi, Mali, Thakur, Son-Koli, Bhandari have played a major
role. In the social life of these castes engaged in agriculture, fishing
and forestry, occupations which are dependent on the mercy of nature,
religion and superstition occupy an important place. The masses in
Konkan believe in the existence of ghosts, such as Vetal, Samandh,
Munja, Khavis, Jakin, Lamvsat and others. The village deity occupies
an important place in the religious life. Among them are included
Maruti, Kalika, Amba, Waghoba, Chedoba, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, Ganesh,
Bahiri, Bhutnath, Ravalnath, Waghjai and others. Many of them are
folk-deities. The annual festival held once in a year in the honour of
the village deity, is an important event in the life of the rural masses
when they can have entertainment and cultural enjoyment. Several
folk-arts are exhibited in these festivals. People from all strata also
participate in the festivals of Puranic (traditional) deities of the elities
as they do in the festivals of the folk-deities. In the age of the modern
146 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

entertainments, these festivals of folk and Puranic deities have

retained their importance in the life of the common people. According
to the Census Report of 1961, in Konkan 1629 festivals were held every
year, out of which 1409 festivals were held in the rural areas.
The artistic life in Konkan has developed on the foundation of
religious life. Among the distinctive folk-dances of Konkan, Koli dance
of the Son- Kolis, Govinda dance and Waghya dance of the Thakurs,
and Gauri-Ganapati dance of the Agri and Kunbi, are the major dance
forms. Similarly a type of dance known as katkhel performed with the
aid of sticks, and pitcher-blowing, a religious dance performed at the
time of Navaratra festival are the unique features of Konkan. A folk
drama called Dashavatari Khel woven around Puranic (legendary)
episodes and evolving spontaneously is also a unique feature of the
regional culture of Konkan.
Khandesh : This important cultural sub-region of Maharashtra is
situated in Tapi-Purna valley. To its north is Satpuda mountain and
to its south and south-west lie Ajanta-Satmala hills and hillocks of
Sahyadri. Along with Khandesh a portion of West Vidarbha is also
situated in this valley. In ancient times, this region was known as
Asik or Rishik and it was connected with Ashmak, Vidarbha and Anup
regions around river Narmada. In the epics Ramayan and Mahabharat
this region is referred by the name Rishik.
This region was a part of Maurya Empire and as can be seen from
the Ajanta caves No. 10 and 12 Heenyan Buddhism had spread in this
part. After the Mauryas the region came under the rule of the
Satavahanas. Broadly speaking the early Satavahana rule began
around 230 B. C. or the end of 2nd century B. C.and later Satavahana
ruled over the Deccan from 230 A. D. An inscription of Rishabhadatta
of Nashik shows that this region was under the rule of the Kushanas
also. An inscription of the Abhir King Ishwarsen indicates that they
had established their rule over this region. The Abhir or the Ahir
kings have made a significant contribution to the making of Khandesh.
Some people prefix their names with the name Ahir even after the
end of the rule of the Ahir dynasty. Among various castes in Khandesh,
including the Maratha and the Brahmin, traces of Ahir enthnicity are
visible. Ahirani, a dialect spoken in this part, is the dialect of the Ahir
community.11 After the rule of the Ahir dynasty, Vakataka, Chalukya
of Badami, Sendraka, Rashtrakuta, and Yadava dynasties ruled over
this region. The Nikumbas who were the tributaries of the Yadavas
ruled over some part of Khandesh. The well- known inscriptions at
Patne and Bahal are an important source of cultural history.
Mathematics and Astronomy had made great progress in this
period. The well-known Indian mathematician and astronomer
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 147

Bhaskaracharya hailed from Patne and his treatise Siddhanta-

shiromani is considered to be an important contribution to astronomy
(A. D. 1150). Chakradharswami, the founder of the Mahanubhav sect
undertook travels in region for bringing about religious awakening
among the people around 1222 A. D. in the Yadava period. As a result,
the Mahanubhav sect has penetrated deeper in this region. Since then,
the tradition of the Mahanubhav sect has been preserved in this
region.12
The Marathas tried to establish their rule over Khandesh but
without much success. It was completely under the control of the
Nizam of Hyderabad between 1713 A. D. to 1752 A. D., the period
when Nizam Ul- Mulk became powerful and usurped considerable
portion of the Moghal territory. In 1752 A. D. the Peshwas acquired
some part of this territory as per the treaty of Bhalki. However, in
1760 A. D. the Marathas acquired the entire Khandesh from the Nizam.
In 1818 A.D. almost the entire Khandesh came under the British rule.
The Bahamanis established their power over the Deccan at the end
of the ruling of Hindu Kings. Yet, except Nandurbar and Sultanpur,
they could not bring the whole Deccan under permanent control,
Firozshah Tughalak, the Sultan awarded a land grant (Jahagir) of
Thalner to Malik Ahmed Faruqui alias Malik Raja in 1370 A.D. for his
promising diplomacy. The latter extended his domain in due course.
This dominion began to be called by the name Khandesh. After
Faruqui’s long reign, the Khandesh region came under the Moghul’s
control in 1601.
In the development of human civilization in Khandesh the late
Harappan culture, as also the Rangpur culture of Gujarat and Malwa
culture of Madhya Pradesh have made a significant contribution.
People of these cultures established their settlements in Khandesh.
The cultural exchange between Gujarat and Khandesh has been in
existence since historic times. The Levapatidars of Gujarat came to
Khandesh, became its permanent residents, and are known as Leva-
Patidars. Similarly from Rajasthan Bhils entered Khandesh in large
number and established their settlements in the region. The Bhils,
also ruled over some part of Khandesh. Chakradharswami, the founder
of Mahanubhav sect was a Gujarati Brahmin. He had visited several
places in Khandesh. Reference has already been made to the great
influence of Abhir or Ahir community in the formation of Khandesh.
As a result of influences of these various cultures, the culture of
Khandesh acquired a mixed character. The best example of this is
Ahirani dialect of Khandesh.
Ahirani is a dialect spoken by the rural masses living in the western
part of Jalgaon district, Dhulia district and some part of Nashik district.
It is an admixture of Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, as also ancient Magadhi,
148 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

Saurashtri, Sauraseni, Lati, Maharashtri, Prakrit and Paishachi. One

of the peculiarities of Ahirani is that the lateral retroflex is substituted
by palatal semivowel. Thus the word ‘Kala’ is pronounced as ‘Kaya’.
Ahirani words are found abundantly in Mahanubhav literature.
The Social and religious life of Khandesh is shaped by the influences
of castes and communities who came from different parts and settled
in this region. Laxmi-Narayan temples built by the Gujarati and
Marwari communities are seen in several places. Vithoba and Ram
are the popular deities of Khandesh. Among the rural masses folk-
deities Bhairav, Bhavani, Bahiroba, Jakhai, Janai, Jokhai, Khandoba,
Maruti, Mhasoba, Mukai, Navalai, Phirangai, Satvi, Tukai, Waghoba
and Vetal occupy important place. Similarly religious rites known as
Rotpuja and Chakrapuja are very popular among people in Khandesh.
Rotpuja is taken by Khandesh from Vidarbha where it is originated.
This rite is performed in the honour of the goddess Kajubai on the
first Sunday coming after Nagpanchami festival. Chakrapuja is also a
very popular rite in Khandesh, and is performed in the honour of the
goddess Ranubai. As per the Census report of 1961 out of 723 festivals
celebrated annually in Khandesh, 689 festivals were celebrated in the
rural areas in honour of the local folk-deities. People of Khandesh are
well-known for hospitality. Majority of the Hindus in Khandesh are
the followers of Varkari sect, that is, Bhagwat Dharma. In addition
to this, sizeable number of the people are the followers of Mahanubhav
sect and Swaminarayan sect.
Vidarbha: This cultural sub-region of Maharashtra known by such
names as Vidarbha, Nag Vidarbha and Varhad is situated in the
Wardha, Vainaganga and Purna valley. The region characterized by
uneven terrain, man-made lakes and thick forests, is gifted with huge
deposits of minerals. Large number of tribal population lives in the
forests in this region. The boundary of this region touches Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. As a result, the influence of these non-
Marathi cultures is visible on the social and cultural life of this region.
Our attempt to trace the ancient culture of Vidarbha takes us back
to the period of Mahabharat. The legend of Shrikrishna marrying the
Vidarbha princess Rukmini figures in the Mahabharat. Also, the legend
of the marriage of the king Nala with Damayanti is figured in this
epic. A south Indian ethnic group, known for their practice of erecting
huge stones-circles at the cite of the burials, and a credited with the
sponsership of iron-age in Maharashtra, had established their
settlements at several places in this region. The Vakatakas ruled over
this region from 250 A. D. to 550 A. D. In 4th century A. D. princess
Prabhavati, the daughter of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty
had married the Vakataka prince, Rudrasen II. The Vakataka kings
had given patronage to the Sanskrit and Prakrit poets. In the literary
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 149

creation of those days in Vidarbha, Vaidarbhi and Vachhomi styles

were accorded place of honour, and even great poets like Kalidas were
inspired to compose their poetry on those lines. The Vakataka kings
themselves composed poetry which received unreserved praise from
great Sanskrit poets like Bana and Dandi, and writers like Kuntak
and Hermchandra. The Vakataka king Sarvasen is regarded as the
author of the Prakrit epic Hari Vijay. This work has been praised by
several poets and literary erudites. Not only this but the influence of
the literary style of Sarvasen is visible in the literary works of Kalidas,
and Pravarsen II in subsequent period. The Vakatakas built majestic
temples. Although these temples are not in existence today in their
complete form, judging from their remains, they can be regarded as
excellent works of art. Vihars and Chaitya caves at Ajanta and Gulwada
were carved during their rule. In the Vakataka period Sanskrit
language and literature developed enormously. Unfortunately, very
little of the prolific literary works of it is available today. In this respect
Meghadut of Kalidas, and Prakrit poem Setubandha of Pravarsen
deserve special mention. Other poetical works and plays of Kalidas
were produced outside Vidarbha in Malwa region, and as a result
descriptions appearing in these works may not be applicable to
Vidarbha.13
The rule of Vakatakas in Vidarbha was followed by the rule of
Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya of Kalyani, Yadava, Bahamani,
Imadshahi, Gond, Mughal, Bhosale of Nagpur, and the Nizam of
Hyderabad. Since 13th March 1854 the British established their rule
over Vidarbha after displacing the Bhosale. 14 However, the province
of Berar remained with Nizam till 1902-03. This region known in
ancient days as Zadimandal has an extremely thick forest, and was
under the rule of the Gond Kings. As a result concentration of tribal
population in this region is very high. These factors and the rule of
various kings belonging to different cultures have created unique
features in the cultural life of this region.
On the demographic composition of Vidarbha the bordering regions
have produced considerable influence. People from north-India and
Andra Pradesh belonging to various castes came to this region and
settled here. Large number of tribal communities have settled in this
region. As mentioned earlier, the Gond Kings ruled over this region
for a considerable period of time, and hence this region is also known
as Gondawana. In the 18th Century, Bhosales made Nagpur the Capital
of their kingdom. This further strengthened the foundation of marathi
culture. The Marathi spoken in this part is known as Varhadi Marathi
and it shows influence of Hindi and tribal dialects. The tribal
population speak in their own dialect while conversing amongst
themselves, and resort to the use of Marathi while interacting with
150 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

others. During the British rule as employees in various administrative

services Bengalis came to this region in sizeable number and became
its permanent residents. The Impact of their culture is also visible on
the cultural life of Vidarbha.
In the religious life, Lord Rama enjoys a good deal of popularity in
Vidarbha. The historic temple of Rama at Ramtek is well-known in
this region. Lord Balaji of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh is the family
god of some castes of this region and several temples of Balaji are
found in Vidarbha. Shiva, Ganapati and Ambabai are also popular
among the people. Vithoba, the deity of the masses of Maharashtra, is
however less popular here. Even then, as a result of the spread of the
Varkari sect among the masses in this part, Vithoba has gained some
popularity among the masses in this region. Khandoba the popular
deity of Maharashtra enjoys less popularity in this region. Riddhipur,
an important sacred centre of Mahanubhav sect, which flourished in
this part, is situated in Amaravati district in the region. As a result of
these distinctive features, the separate identity of Vidarbha stands
out within the frame-work of the culture of Maharashtra.
Marathwada : The cultural sub-region of Maharashtra which
witnessed the flowering of the urban culture in early historic times,
is located in Godavari valley. The Satavahanas, the first dynasty with
the known history to rule over Maharashtra, had made Pratisthan,
todays Paithan, their capital. An anecdote about a king belonging to
this dynasty suggests the possibility of the non-Sanskritic origin of
this dynasty. However, there is no historical evidence for this. The
Satavahanas spoke Maharashtri, a Prakrit language, and the majority
of their inscriptions were also in Prakrit. Gathasaptashati a literary
work in Prakrit was compiled by the king Hala of this dynasty, to
which he also contributed 44 verses. The Satavahana Kings constructed
a trade route from Pratishthan to Junnar, and further upto Kalyan
via Naneghat. The culture of Marathwada and thereby that of
Maharashtra was acquiring its form in the period of the Satavahanas.
It blossomed in the period of the Yadavas. Dnyaneshwar writing
Bhavartha Deepika or Dnyaneshwari a magnificent commentary on
Bhagwad Geeta and brought the cultural tradition of the Sanskrit in
Marathi. That is to say he Prakritized it. Due to the royal patronage
provided by the Yadavas of Devagiri Marathi language became enriched
and was recognized as the language of the entire Maharashtra. After
the defeat of the Yadavas in 1318 A. D. this region came under the
rule of the Muslim kings. Khilji, Tughlak, Mughal and the Nizam of
Hyderabad ruled over this region, and it remained under the rule of
the Nizam till India attained independence. During this period cultural
development of Marathwada came to a stand still. The rest of
Maharashtra was under the rule of the Marathas and witnessed the
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 151

emergence of the Marathi identity. However, under the rule of Nizam

Marathwada remained backward. The Nizam adopted a very
oppressive religious policy and enforced a very harsh land revenue
system. As a result, a former peace loving population rose in revolt
spreading unrest everywhere.15
With a view to inflicting defeat on Tipu Sultan the Nizam joined
hands with the British. For this he was rewarded with some parts of
the Mysore kingdom. However, the British took away this territory
as a result of the treaty of 1800 A. D. , and retained it with them. Due
to this the Nizam secretly adopted a policy of inciting his subjects to
rise in revolt against the British regime. This policy resulted in the
uprising of Hatkar-Dhangars in 1803 A. D. under the leadership of
Navsaji Naik. Similarly in Beed district a revolt took place under the
leadership of Dharmaji Prataprao. After the defeat of the Marathas in
1818 A. D. the British gave to Nizam Kannad and Vaijapur talukas
from Aurangabad district, having considerable population of the Bhils.
As a result of the indirect encouragement from Nizam, from 1820
A. D. to 1840 A. D. people rose in revolt against the British rule under
the leadership of Chil Naik and others. The British crushed all these
revolts. Cotton was an important cash crop in Marathwada under the
British rule and with this the power of the money-lenders increased.
Political campaigns launched by Arya Samaj and Lokmannya Tilak in
this region, received popular acceptance of the masses which was
struggling against the oppressive regime of the Nizam.
When India was on the threshold of attaining Independence (1946
A. D.). The Nizam decided not to merge his State in the proposed
republic of India. He openly began making efforts to keep the State of
Hyderabad as a independent sovereign State. With a view to
maintaining sovereign power and safe-guarding the interests of the
Muslim community, an extremist, aggressive, and martial organization
known as ‘ Ittehad-UL-Musalmeen ’ sprang up under the leadership of
Kasim Razvi, a representative of the Nizam. This gave a communal
twist to the liberation movement, and a sort of ‘Civil War’ began in
the region. Thus the people of Marathwada had to fight against the
interests of the British, the Nizam, and the Muslim community. This
inevitably produced an impact on the cultural and social life of the
people. To put an end to this frightful conflict, the Government of
India sent an army in the State of Hyderabad as per the plan of Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, and quelled the Nizam and Ittehad-UL-Musalmeen.
Ultimately on 17th September 1948 the State of Hyderabad and the
Marathwada region within it, attained freedom from the oppressive
rule of the Nizam, After independence, Marathwada was earlier in
the State of Hyderabad, and subsequently in 1956, became part of the
152 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

Bombay Province. After the creation of the linguistic State of

Maharashtra of the Marathi speaking population on 1st May 1960,
Marathwada of the Marathi speaking population became an integral
part of Maharashtra. The Reasons for the educational and social
backwardness of the Marathwda region can be traced in this historical
background.
One of the significant features of the social structure of Marathwada
is the preponderence of the backward castes, such as Mahar, Mang,
Chambhar, in the population. The reason for this is related to the fact
that in Maharashtra urban culture first developed in Marathwada
compared to other sub-regions. Similarly in the nineteenth century,
proportion of incapable land-lords was much higher creating great
demand for agricultural labourers in Marathwada. As a result,
agricultural labour from other parts migrated to Marathwada. Among
them the proportion of depressed classes was much higher. According
to 1931 Census, in the total population of Marathwada, depressed
classes constituted 17 per cent of the population. Of these 90 per cent
Dalits lived in rural areas, and of these 74 per cent were landless
labourers. If we keep aside this feature of numerical preponderence
of Dalits in other respects the casts system of Marathwada shows a
similarity with that of the Western Maharashtra.16
Under Nizam rule the economic, educational and social progress of
Marathwada was stagnant. In 1951 the total road length in
Marathwada was only 2164 Kms., which rose to 7944 kms. in 1974. In
1954 not a single village and but only five towns had electricity. While
in 1973-74, 3,247 villages and towns enjoyed the benefit of electricity.
In 1921 the percentage of literates among males in Marathwada was 5
percent, and among females it was less than half per cent. These
percentages rose to 15.7 and 2,3 respectively in 1951. There was not a
single degree college in Marathwada in 1950. Now there are two
universities, one agricultural university, and several colleges.
In the Yadava period Marathi prospered and several books were
written in it. However, under the Muslim rule cultural contact of
Marathwada with other/regions of Maharashtra declined, and as a
result, the spoken language of the region developed several stylistic
peculiarities. During this period, the western Maharashtra was on
the path of progress and Marathi, prevalent in this part became the
language of literature.
In the religious sphere Marathwada has retained its historic
importance. The tradition of saint-poets in this region contributed to
the strengthening of Varkari sect in Maharashtra. Tulja Bhawani, the
guardian deity of -Maharashtra, is located at Tuljapur in Marathwada.
Out of the twelve Jyotirlingas (the phallic representation of Lord Shiva),
 CULTURAL SUB-REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA 153

three are located in Marathwada region. The three Jyotirlingas, at

Aundhyanagnath, Ghrishneshwar, and Parali Vaijanath are well-
known not only in Maharashtra but throughout India. Similarly, godess
Jogeshwari at Ambajogai is the family deity of several Konkanastha
Brahmins. The saint-poets of this region realized the need to combine
spiritualism with the need of the masses for entertainment and
produced the relevant literature. Bhajans, Bharuds, and Gawalans of
Eknath are popular in the entire Maharashtra. Kalagi Tura, a type of
metaphysical Lavani came into vogue out of this realization, and
Marathwada also has made a significant contribution in this field,
Yatra, or a fair is a cultural event which combines religious beliefs
with entertainment. This form of entertainment is very popular in
the rural areas of Marathwada. Fairs held in the urban areas are
important in the generation and integration of sub-regional and
regional cultures. Many people from this region and also from the
adjoining areas participate in these Yatras. As per 1961 Census the
famous Yatras attended by more than one lakh pilgrims each in
Marathwada are Nathshashthi fair of Paithan, Khandoba fair at
Malegaon in Nanded district, Tulja Bhavani fair of Tuljapur in
Osmanabad district and Siddheshwar fair at Latur.
Desh Or Dakhhan : A region formed by the river Krishna and its
tributaries namely, Ghodf Mula, Mutha, Nira, Bhima and Koyana
constitutes Desh or Dakhhan. This region includes Pune, Satara, Sangli,
Sholapur, and Kolhapur districts. A portion of this region comprising
the western part of Satara district, Sangli and Kolhapur, which is
drained by Krishna river, is extremely fertile.
During Yadava period this region was divided into four divisions
namely, Karhad Desh, Man Desh, Kolhapur Desh and Mirinj Desh.
This region was ruled by the Satavahanas, Vishnu Kundin, Chalukyas
of Badami, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas of Kalyani, Yadavas (After 1218
A. D.), Sultans of Delhi, Bahamanis, Adilshahi of Vijapur. Mughals,
Marathas, and other royal dynasties. During the period of Bahamani,
Adilshahi and Mughal rules, several Maratha Sardars ruled over the
territory as their Feudal Sardars. The Maratha Sardars who were
loyal to their masters frequently quarrelled amongst themselves,
creating hardships for their subjects, and at times anarchic situation.
In this background Shivaji Maharaj come to the fore front. He kindled,
in the people and among his Sardars, sentiments of self-respect, loyalty
to one’s master, loyalty to ones religion and self- rule. He established
a sovereign state and expanded its frontiers. He reformed the
administrative system and ensured satisfactory functioning of the
judicial system. Progressive persons received encouragement, and a
new era in the social and political history of Maharashtra ushered in.
154 MAHARASHTRA : LAND AND ITS PEOPLE

From 1713 A. D., when the Peshwas became powerful, the centre of
Maratha power shifted to Pune. Since, Pune become the head quarters
of the Peshwas talented Brahmins and Marathas settled at Pune. With
the emergence of the centre of power, Brahmin intelligentsia and
Saraswats started arriving to Pune. In a short time, Pune became the
centre of power, learning, education and religious activities. At the
same time, due to progress of education, Pune became the centre of
culture of Maharashtra. This change influenced to a great extent the
social and cultural life of this sub-region. Due to political patronage,
the culture of this sub-region occupied the centre-stage of Maharashtra
and played a significant role in fostering its cultural integration.
In the agrarian economy of this region a dominant class of Maratha
Zamindars came into existence and influenced the social order of the
region as well. Maratha caste emerged as economically, socially, and
politically the dominant caste. Influence of the social customs of this
caste is visible on other castes as well. Godess Bhavani, the family-
deity of the Bhosale dynasty, became the family-deity of the entire
Maharashtra. With the emergence of the ruling class, internal ranking
came into existence in the Maratha caste giving rise to such differences
as Panchkuli, Shahannav kuli, and the commoner Marathas. However,
as a result of the prevalence of hypergamy within the caste, these
sub-groups became united together by the social bond of kinship. This
process took place not only in this sub-region but in other sub-regions
of Maharashtra as well : thus connecting various sub-regions each
other. In this way in the cultural integration of the sub-regions of
Maharashtra the role of the Maratha caste is significant. With the
rise of Peshwa Brahmins in Maharashtra, especially Chitpavan,
Brahmins received royal patronage resulting in improvement of their
economic condition. Pune became a place of patronage for the
Brahmins, producing erudite poets like Moropant. Marathi prevalent
among the Brahmins of Pune became the language of literary creation,
and was recognized as the language of literature in the entire
Maharashtra. A form of religious discourse known as Haridasi Kirtan,
which was enriched by the poetry of Pandit Kavi or erudite poets,
received acceptance of the elites, and spread in the entire Maharashtra.
Ganapati was the family-deity of the Peshwas. As a result, in the
Peshwa regime in this part, that is in western India. Ganesh Worship
got a good deal of popularity, and Ganesh temples in this part which
had gone into oblivion, came to lime-light as Ashta Vinayakas, or eight
sacred shrines of Ganesh. A deity which brings together all castes,
from Brahmins to Dalits in this part, is Khandoba. Important shrines
of Khandoba, such as Jejuri and Pali, are located in this region.
The social, political, and religious movements, which took place in
Maharashtra in the British period, originated in Pune, Kolhapur,