IZhO 2024 Selection Exam Solutions

Problem 1 (10.0 points)

Problem 1.1 (3.0 points)
For a stone launched from a stationary catapult:
𝑣𝑣02
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑔𝑔
When the stone is launched from the catapult installed on the platform, its velocity
relative to the ground is
𝑣𝑣1𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛽𝛽

𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑣𝑣2

From conservation of linear momentum in 𝑥𝑥 direction
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣2
From last two eqs.
𝑛𝑛
𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣 cos 𝛽𝛽
𝑛𝑛 + 1 0
Range of the stone in second case:

′
2𝑣𝑣1𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣02 sin 2𝛽𝛽
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 =
𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑔𝑔
Maximum value of this range is:
𝑛𝑛
𝑠𝑠 ′ = 𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛 + 1
Marking scheme
Content Points
𝑣𝑣02 0.2
Formula: 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
2𝑔𝑔
Formula: 𝑣𝑣1𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛽𝛽 0.4
Formula: 𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑣𝑣2 0.4
Formula: 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣2 0.8
𝑛𝑛
Formula: 𝑣𝑣1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛽𝛽 0.4
𝑛𝑛+1
′ 𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣02 sin 2𝛽𝛽 0.5
Formula: 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛
Formula: 𝑠𝑠 ′ = 𝑠𝑠 0.3
𝑛𝑛+1
Total 3.0

Problem 1.2 (4.0 points)

a) Pressures on both sides of the piston are equal. Use the ideal gas law,
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
𝑃𝑃 = =
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉
From these equations
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿0 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 + 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅0 = 𝑉𝑉
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 + 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
b) As there is no heat exchange between the cylinder and outside
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
As the total expansion of the gas is zero
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
So
3 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 = 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 + 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅
2 2
Or
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 = −𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅 (1)
As the piston is massless, pressures on both sides of the piston are always equal:
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 (2)
This equation can be rewritten as:
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
+ = + (3)
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
Heat transfer plus work done due to expansion
3 3 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 − 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (4)
2 2 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
Finally we have
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 (5)
From Eqs. (1), (2), (3) and (5) we get:
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
= (6)
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
Also from Eq. (1)
𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑 (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 ) = �1 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (7)
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿
Put Eqs. (6) and (7) into Eq. (4)
𝑑𝑑 (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 ) 2𝑘𝑘 1 1
=− � + � (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
Integrating this eq. we get:
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 = (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿0 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅0 )𝑒𝑒 −𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
2𝑘𝑘 1 1
Where 𝛽𝛽 = − � + �
5𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
Marking scheme
Content Points
 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
Formula: = 0.3
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
Formula: 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉 0.1
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿0 = 𝑉𝑉 0.3
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 +𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
Formula: 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅0 = 𝑉𝑉 0.3
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 +𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 0.1
Formula:𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 0.1
3 3
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 = 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 + 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅 0.5
2 2
Formula: 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 0.4
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 0.6
Formula: + = +
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
3 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝑘𝑘 (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿 − 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 0.8
2 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 0.1
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 0.4
Formula: =
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 0.3
Formula: 𝑑𝑑 (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 ) = �1 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑(𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 −𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 ) 2𝑘𝑘 1 1 0.3
Formula: =− � + � (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
Formula: 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 = (𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿0 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅0 𝑒𝑒 ) −𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 0.4
Total 4.0

Problem 1.3 (3.0 points)

When the key is switched on, the capacitor loses charge; when it is switched off, it
gains charge. In a state of equilibrium, the charge received must be equal to that lost
in one cycle.
𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼− =
𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀 − 𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼+ =
𝑅𝑅
Since the time 𝑡𝑡 is short enough
0 = 2𝑡𝑡𝐼𝐼− − 𝑡𝑡𝐼𝐼+
Then the voltage across the capacitor
𝜀𝜀
𝑈𝑈 =
2
Let us determine the dependence of the current on the key on time, starting from the
moment when the switch stopped periodically closing and was left in the closed
mode.
𝐼𝐼𝐾𝐾 = 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶
𝜀𝜀
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅
𝑈𝑈 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝜀𝜀 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅
 𝜀𝜀
𝐼𝐼𝐾𝐾 = (2 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 )
2𝑅𝑅
Marking scheme
Content Points
𝑈𝑈
Formula: 𝐼𝐼− = 0.25
𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀−𝑈𝑈
Formula:𝐼𝐼+ = 0.25
𝑅𝑅
Formula: 0 = 2𝑡𝑡𝐼𝐼− − 𝑡𝑡𝐼𝐼+ 0.25
𝜀𝜀
Formula: 𝑈𝑈 = 0.25
2
Formula: 𝐼𝐼𝐾𝐾 = 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 0.5
𝜀𝜀
Formula: 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒 = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0.5
𝑅𝑅
𝑈𝑈 𝜀𝜀 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Formula: 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑒𝑒 0.5
𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀 −𝑡𝑡/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 )
Formula: 𝐼𝐼𝐾𝐾 = (2 + 𝑒𝑒 0.5
2𝑅𝑅
Total 3.0

Problem 2 (10.0 points)

2.1 Let us consider a current element located along angular coordinates ranging from 𝛼𝛼 to
𝛼𝛼 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

For geometric considerations,

𝑙𝑙
= tan 𝛼𝛼 (1)
𝑧𝑧
So the length of the current element is
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (2)
cos 2 𝛼𝛼
Whereas the distance to the observation point is
 𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟 = (3)
cos 𝛼𝛼
From the Law of the Bio-Savar-Laplass, we get that the current element creates a
magnetic induction at the observation point
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝛼𝛼
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (4)
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
And since the directions of magnetic induction of all the elements of the conductor
coincide, the complete magnetic induction is determined by the expression
𝜋𝜋/2
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = 2.00 ∙ 10−7 𝑇𝑇 (5)
−𝜋𝜋/2 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Note: Also you can use Ampere’s law:

� 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼

𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 = = 2.00 ∙ 10−7 𝑇𝑇
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2.2 Consider an element of the circumference arc 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙⃗ and calculate its magnetic induction.

From geometric considerations it follows that

𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 (6)
𝑅𝑅
sin 𝛼𝛼 = (7)
𝑟𝑟
From the Law of the Bio-Savar-Laplass, we get that the current element creates a
magnetic induction at the observation point
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (8)
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
In this case, the directions of magnetic induction of various current elements differ, and
when summing, only the component along the axis of the circular coil, which is equal
𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝛼𝛼 (9)
When summing, it turns out that all elements of a circular coil give the same contribution,
and since the length of the circle is
𝑙𝑙 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (10)
then the final answer follows from here
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 2
𝐵𝐵 = � 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 = = 2.22 ∙ 10−7 𝑇𝑇 (11)
( 2
2 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )3/2

2.3 Consider the coil turns located from the end at a distance from 𝑦𝑦 to 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. The total
current force that flows through these turns is equal
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (12)
The turns can be considered as a circular loop and use formula (11), which leads to the
result
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (13)
2(𝑅𝑅2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑧𝑧)2 )3/2
Integrating formula (13) over the entire coil, we finally obtain
𝐿𝐿
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧
𝐵𝐵 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + � (14)
0 2 √𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 �𝑅𝑅2 + (𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)2

2.4 The magnetic field will have a component along the axis of the coil 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧), which is
approximately determined by formula (14), since 𝑟𝑟/𝑅𝑅 ≪ 1. In addition, the magnetic
field will have a radial component 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 , directed along from the axis of the coil to its
surface (or vice versa for the other end).
To find the radial component of the magnetic field, we use the fact that magnetic lines are
closed, that is, their flux through any closed volume becomes zero. To do this, consider a
very thin cylinder of thickness 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and radius 𝑟𝑟 with the ends perpendicular to the axis of
the coil, then the change in flux through the ends is equal to the flux through the side
surface, that is
𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧)𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 − 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (15)
Let us take advantage of the fact that the cylinder is very thin and the expansion is valid
for magnetic induction
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧) + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (16)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which, when substituted into formula (15), gives
𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 = (16)
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using expression (14) at 𝑧𝑧 = 0 (or 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿), we find the radial component of magnetic
induction
 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅3
𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 = �1 − 2 � (17)
2 2𝑅𝑅 (𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅 2 )3/2

Along the axis, the field is determined by formula (14) at 𝑧𝑧 = 0 (or 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿), which gives
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿
𝐵𝐵 = (18)
2 √𝐿𝐿2 + 𝑅𝑅2
The angle of inclination of the magnetic field lines to the axis of the coil is determined by
the expression
1/2 −3/2
𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅 2 𝐿𝐿2
𝛼𝛼 = arctan = arctan � �1 + 2 � �1 − �1 + 2 � �� = 2.87o (19)
𝐵𝐵 2𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅

2.5 From formula (14) it follows that the induction in the center of the solenoid is
𝐿𝐿
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (20)
√4𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐿𝐿2
which means for 𝐿𝐿 → ∞ we get
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 1.26 ∙ 10−3 𝑇𝑇 (21)
2.6 The magnetic flux through one turn of the coil is equal to the product of magnetic
induction (22) and cross-sectional area
Φ0 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 (22)
The number of turns in the coil is equal to
𝑁𝑁 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (23)
and the inductance of a coil is defined as the ratio of the total flux through all turns to the
magnitude of the current, that is
𝑁𝑁Φ0
𝐿𝐿0 = = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛2 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿 = 3.95 ∙ 10−5 𝐻𝐻 (24)
𝐼𝐼
2.7 The total magnetic flux through the coil consists of the flux of the external magnetic
field with a projection onto the 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 axis and the coil’s own magnetic field
Φ = 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝐼𝐼 (25)
According to Faraday's law, when the coil rotates, an induced emf appears in the circuit,
which is equal to
𝑑𝑑Φ
𝜀𝜀 = − (26)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and according to Ohm's law
𝜀𝜀 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 (27)
The current strength in the circuit is related to the flowing charge by the relation
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼 = (28)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
whence, putting together (26)-(29), we get
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑅𝑅0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (29)
Integrating (30) taking into account the fact that the initial projection of the magnetic
field in the coil changes from 𝐵𝐵0 to zero, the current in the coil remains zero before the
start of rotation and after it, we finally obtain
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 2 𝐵𝐵0
𝑄𝑄 = = 3.14 ∙ 10−8 𝐶𝐶 (30)
𝑅𝑅0
2.8 The power released in an alternating current circuit is determined by the product of
the effective values of voltage and current, as well as the cosine of the phase shift
between current and voltage
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜑𝜑 (31)
From the laws for alternating current circuits it follows that
𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼 = (32)
𝑍𝑍
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
cos 𝜑𝜑 = (33)
𝑍𝑍

𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥2 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿20 (34)

Substituting (33)-(35) into (32), we obtain the expression

𝑈𝑈 2 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃 = 2 (35)
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿20
which takes its maximum value at
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿0 = 1.24 ∙ 10−2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (36)
2.9 Pulling the core inside the coil leads to the fact that the inductance of the coil changes
over time, so Faraday’s law (27) in this case is written as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥
𝑈𝑈 = 𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑈𝑈 is the source voltage.
At the zero moment of time and up to 𝑡𝑡0 = 10−5 𝑠𝑠, the current increases linearly, which
actually means that the core does not yet have time to be pulled inward, therefore,
neglecting the second term in equation (39), we obtain the equation
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈 = 𝐿𝐿0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
from which it follows
𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡0
𝐿𝐿0 =
𝐼𝐼0
where 𝐼𝐼0 = 10 𝐴𝐴, 𝐿𝐿0 − is the inductance of the coil without a core.
Let the core be pulled into the coil to a length 𝑙𝑙, then with the full length of the coil 𝐿𝐿 its
inductance 𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 is given by
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑙𝑙
𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿0 + 𝐿𝐿0
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
whose derivative is equal to
𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇 − 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝐿𝐿0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Indeed, in the horizontal section of the dependence of current on time, the derivative is
zero, so the first term in expression (39) drops out, and since the voltage is also constant,
this means that the derivative of inductance with respect to time is also constant. This
means that the core is retracted inward at a constant speed, and the time of its retraction is
determined by the formula
𝐿𝐿
𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which leads to the final answer
𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 = (𝜇𝜇 − 1)𝑡𝑡0 ≈ 𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡0 = 1.88 ∙ 10−2 𝑠𝑠

Marking scheme
No Content Points
𝑙𝑙
Formula: = tan 𝛼𝛼 0.1
𝑧𝑧
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 0.1
cos 𝛼𝛼
Formula: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛼𝛼 0.1
2.1 𝜇𝜇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝛼𝛼 0.6
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 2
0.1
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
Formula: 𝐵𝐵 = 0.1
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Numerical value: 𝐵𝐵 = 2.00 ∙ 10−7 𝑇𝑇 0.1
Formula: 𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 0.1
𝑅𝑅
Formula: sin 𝛼𝛼 = 0.1
𝑟𝑟
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.1
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
2.2 Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝛼𝛼 0.1 0.7
Formula: 𝑙𝑙 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 0.1
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2
Formula: 𝐵𝐵 = 0.1
2(𝑅𝑅2 +𝑧𝑧 2 )3/2
Numerical value: 𝐵𝐵 = 2.22 ∙ 10−7 𝑇𝑇 0.1
2.3 Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 0.3 0.9
 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0.2
2(𝑅𝑅2 +(𝑦𝑦−𝑧𝑧)2 )3/2
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿−𝑧𝑧
Formula: 𝐵𝐵 = � + � 0.4
2 √𝑅𝑅2 +𝑧𝑧2 �𝑅𝑅2 +(𝐿𝐿−𝑧𝑧)2
Formula: 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧)𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 − 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 0.3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝐵𝐵(𝑧𝑧) + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 = 0.3
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅3
2.4 Formula: 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 = �1 − � 0.2 1.6
2 2𝑅𝑅 (𝐿𝐿2 +𝑅𝑅2 )3/2
𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝐵𝐵 = 0.1
2 √𝐿𝐿2 +𝑅𝑅2
1/2 −3/2
𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿2
Formula: 𝛼𝛼 = arctan � �1 + 2
� �1 − �1 + 2
� �� 0.3
2𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
Numerical value: 𝛼𝛼 = 2.87o 0.2
Formula: 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 0.2
2.5 0.4
Numerical value: 𝐵𝐵 = 1.26 ∙ 10−3 𝑇𝑇 0.2
Formula: Φ0 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 0.2
Formula: 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 0.2
2.6 0.8
Formula: 𝐿𝐿0 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛2 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2 𝐿𝐿 0.2
Numerical value: 𝐿𝐿0 = 3.95 ∙ 10−5 𝐻𝐻 0.2
Formula: Φ = 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝐼𝐼 0.2
𝑑𝑑Φ
Formula: 𝜀𝜀 = − 0.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝜀𝜀 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 0.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2.7 Formula: 𝐼𝐼 = 0.2 1.4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 + 𝐿𝐿0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑅𝑅0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0.2
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅2 𝐵𝐵0
Formula: 𝑄𝑄 = 0.2
𝑅𝑅0
Numerical value: 𝑄𝑄 = 3.14 ∙ 10−8 𝐶𝐶 0.2
Formula: 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜑𝜑 0.2
𝑈𝑈
Formula: 𝐼𝐼 = 0.2
𝑍𝑍
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
Formula: cos 𝜑𝜑 = 0.2
𝑍𝑍
2.8 Formula: 𝑍𝑍 = �𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥2 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿20 0.2 1.4
𝑈𝑈 2 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
Formula: 𝑃𝑃 = 0.2
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 +𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿20
2

Formula: 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿0 0.2

Numerical value: 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 1.24 ∙ 10−2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 0.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 0.3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐿𝐿0 0.3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡0
Formula: 𝐿𝐿0 = 0.2
𝐼𝐼0
2.9 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝐿𝐿−𝑙𝑙 2.2
Formula: 𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿0 + 𝐿𝐿0 0.3
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇−1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: = 𝐿𝐿0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0.3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿
Formula: 𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 = 0.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Formula: 𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 = (𝜇𝜇 − 1)𝑡𝑡0 ≈ 𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡0 0.5
Numerical value: 𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 = 1.88 ∙ 10−2 𝑠𝑠 0.1
Total 10

Problem 3 (10.0 points)

3.1 In the Big Bang model, all the bodies fly away from the center of mass of the
Universe, and at any given moment the speed of an object moving away from the center
of the Universe is 𝑉𝑉 �⃗𝐶𝐶 = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ 𝑟𝑟⃗𝐶𝐶 . Let's consider now the reference frame connected with the
Sun. It is clear that the velocity of the Sun relative to the center of masses of the Universe
�⃗𝐶𝐶 = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ 𝑟𝑟⃗𝐶𝐶 . Then the velocity of an arbitrary body relative to the Sun is ����⃗
is 𝑉𝑉 �⃗ −
𝑉𝑉 ′ = 𝑉𝑉
�⃗𝐶𝐶 = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ (𝑟𝑟⃗ − 𝑟𝑟⃗𝐶𝐶 ) = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ 𝑟𝑟���⃗′ , and in this formula 𝑟𝑟���⃗′ is the radius vector of the body relative
𝑉𝑉
to the Sun. Thus, the Hubble Law will also be applicable to the motion of matter in the
Universe relative to the Sun. It is clear that this law will hold for an observer on any of
the bodies in the Universe, regardless of its position. Therefore, it does not follow from
the Hubble Law that the solar system is near the center of the universe.

3.2 Using the Gauss theorem (by analogy to electrostatics), one may conclude that inside
the ball with constant density 𝜌𝜌 the acceleration of free fall at a distance 𝑟𝑟 from its center
is
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (𝑟𝑟) 𝐺𝐺𝜌𝜌 � � 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3
𝑔𝑔⃗(𝑟𝑟⃗) = − 𝑟𝑟⃗ = − 𝑟𝑟
⃗ = − 𝑟𝑟⃗
𝑟𝑟 3 𝑟𝑟 3 3
Then the gravitational field potential satisfying the equality
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= −𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 3
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
𝜑𝜑 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝑟𝑟
3
At the external boundary 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) and this potential should coincide with the potential of
the ball
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
𝜑𝜑(𝑅𝑅) = − =− 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 3
That allows one to determine constant 𝐶𝐶, it is equal
𝐶𝐶 = −2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2
Thus,
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 − 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2
3
The energy of the matter layer of radius 𝑟𝑟 and thickness 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in this field is equal to
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟) ∙ 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If we sum up such energies of all layers of matter, we will obtain the energy of
interaction of each pair of layers twice - as energy of the second layer in the field of the
first layer and as energy of the first layer in the field of the second one. Therefore, the
energy of gravitational interaction of layers:
𝑅𝑅
1 𝑟𝑟 2 16𝜋𝜋 2 𝐺𝐺𝜌𝜌2 𝑅𝑅5
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = � 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 ∙ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 � − 𝑅𝑅 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −
2 3 5
0

By substituting the mass in this formula one obtains

3𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀2
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = −
5𝑅𝑅
Note: the analogy to electrostatics is acceptable, because it is possible to use the formula
3𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞 2
for the energy of a homogeneously charged ball 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = with necessary corrections
5𝑅𝑅
(change of sign, replacement 𝑘𝑘 → 𝐺𝐺 and 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑀𝑀)
3.3 The kinetic energy of matter layer of radius 𝑟𝑟 and thickness 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is equal to
1 1
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 = 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟2 = 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ (𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)2
2 2
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the entire ball is
𝑅𝑅
1 2 2 2
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻 2 𝑅𝑅5 3
𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 = � 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 ∙ 𝐻𝐻 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = 𝑀𝑀𝐻𝐻 2 𝑅𝑅2
2 5 10
0

3.4 The total mechanical energy of the NU is equal to

3 2 2
3𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 + 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = 𝑀𝑀𝐻𝐻 𝑅𝑅 −
10 5𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Note that for the movement of the outer surface of the ball, 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 = = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. That's why
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 3𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑀𝑀 � � −
10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑅𝑅
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10𝐸𝐸 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= ±� + (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑀𝑀 𝑅𝑅

Expansion of the NU corresponds to a “plus” sign in (1). It is obvious that the expansion
rate can only be set to zero if 𝐸𝐸 < 0. On the other hand, if we express the energy in terms
of density of matter and the Hubble constant
2𝜋𝜋 5 2 8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌𝑅𝑅 �𝐻𝐻 − 𝜌𝜌�
5 3
then one can note that 𝐸𝐸 < 0 if
3
𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) > 𝐻𝐻 2 (𝑡𝑡)
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3
The density of matter 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 = 𝐻𝐻 2 is called “critical density”. It is interesting that the
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Laplace model in Newtonian mechanics gives for 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 exactly the same expression as in
Friedman's models based on the general relativity equations.
3.5 As far as the said energy is concerned, equation (1) at the expansion stage is

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= �− 𝑐𝑐 2 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 9 𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The maximum radius 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 corresponds to the stopping point = 0, therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

9𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = ≈ 3.35 ∙ 1028 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 1012 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2𝑐𝑐 2
3.6 After expanding to a maximum radius, the NU stops and then begins its compression
that is symmetrical to expansion. Therefore, the lifetime of such a NU is equal to twice
the expansion time:
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 = 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 � =� �
4 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 �1 − 𝑅𝑅/𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
0 �− 𝑐𝑐 2 + 0
9 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
Using substitution 𝑥𝑥 = , we bring this expression to the form
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

1
2 3/2 √𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 2𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 27𝜋𝜋 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑇𝑇 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 � = � = 3
≈ 5.3 ∙ 1020 𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1.67 ∙ 1013 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 √1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 4 𝑐𝑐
0

3.7 In accordance with (1) the behavior of the NU is determined by the sign of total
energy. As we have seen above, if 𝐸𝐸 < 0 then the expansion stops and is replaced by
𝑅𝑅→∞
compression. If 𝐸𝐸 = 0 then the rate of expansion is always positive and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �⎯� 0 at
that. If 𝐸𝐸 > 0 then this expansion rate is also always positive, and even after an infinitely
 10𝐸𝐸
long time remains greater than a positive constant � . On the other hand, it can be seen
3𝑀𝑀
2𝜋𝜋 8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
from expression 𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌𝑅𝑅5 �𝐻𝐻 2 − 𝜌𝜌� that the sign of energy is determined by 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡)
5 3
and 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡). Thus, the relationship between density and Hubble constant really determines
3
the further fate of the NU. With 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) > 𝐻𝐻 2 (𝑡𝑡), the expansion of the NU is replaced
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3 2(
by compression; if 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐻𝐻 𝑡𝑡), then the NU expands eternally and the expansion
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3
rate decreases, tending to zero at infinite time; while if 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) < 𝐻𝐻 2 (𝑡𝑡) then the
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
expansion never stops and becomes uniform at a very long period of time. The
corresponding graphs are shown below.

Fig. 1a. Fig. 2a. Fig. 3a.

Fig. 1b. Fig. 2b. Fig. 3b.

The correctness criteria for the above graphs involve the following facts: start "from 0"
(for 1a, 2a, 3a), infinite radius growth (for 2a and 3a), return of radius to zero (1a),
monotonous speed change and change of speed sign (for 1b), correct asymptotes (for 1b,
2b, 3b). It is allowed to consider the speed at 𝑡𝑡 = 0 to be almost infinite.
3.8 Substituting 𝐸𝐸 = 0 in (1) we get for the expanding NU

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
=�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅

Consequently,
2 3
√𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = √2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅2 (𝑡𝑡) = √2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡
3
Thus,
1/3
9𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 2
𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) = � �
2
3.9 It is clear that
 3𝑀𝑀 1
𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) = =
4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅3 (𝑡𝑡) 6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑡𝑡 2
At zero energy,
3
𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐻𝐻 2 (𝑡𝑡)
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
i.e.
2
𝐻𝐻 (𝑡𝑡) =
3𝑡𝑡
Therefore, Hubble's constant is related to the reverse age of the NU!
3.10 In reversible adiabatic expansion, the entropy of the NU remains constant, and,
therefore,
3/2 3/2
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉0 𝑇𝑇0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
4𝜋𝜋
As 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅3 , then
3

𝑅𝑅0 2
𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇0 � �
𝑅𝑅
1/3
9𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 2
Note that 𝑅𝑅 (𝑡𝑡) = � � . Taking into account that
2

2
𝑡𝑡 =
3𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡
we find the temperature

𝑡𝑡 4/3 2 4/3
𝑇𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 � � = 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 � � ≈ 5.4 ∙ 1023 𝐾𝐾
𝑡𝑡0 3𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡0
Marking scheme
No Content Points
3.1 Formula: ����⃗
𝑉𝑉 ′ �⃗ − 𝑉𝑉
= 𝑉𝑉 �⃗𝐶𝐶 = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ (𝑟𝑟⃗ − 𝑟𝑟⃗𝐶𝐶 ) = 𝐻𝐻 ∙ ���⃗
𝑟𝑟 ′ 0.4 0.4
3𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀2
3.2 Formula: 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = − 0.8 0.8
5𝑅𝑅
1 1
Formula: 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 = 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟2 = 𝜌𝜌 ∙ 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∙ (𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)2 0.2
2 2
3.3 3 0.4
Formula: 𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 = 𝑀𝑀𝐻𝐻 2 𝑅𝑅2 0.2
10
3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 3𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀2
Formula: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑀𝑀 � � − 0.5
10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10𝐸𝐸 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Formula: = ±� + 0.1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑀𝑀 𝑅𝑅
3.4 Formula: 𝐸𝐸 < 0 0.2 1.2
2𝜋𝜋 8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Formula: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌𝑅𝑅5 �𝐻𝐻 2 − 𝜌𝜌� 0.1
5 3
3
Formula: 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡 ) > 𝐻𝐻 2 (𝑡𝑡) 0.3
8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Formula: = �− 𝑐𝑐 2 + 0.3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 9 𝑅𝑅
3.5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0.8
Formula: =0 0.1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
9𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Formula: 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = ≈ 3.35 ∙ 1028 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 1012 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 0.4
2𝑐𝑐 2
𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑅𝑅 √𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Formula: 𝑇𝑇 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 ∫0 𝑚𝑚 =� ∫ 𝑚𝑚 0.6
4
�− 𝑐𝑐 2 +
2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 0 �1−𝑅𝑅/𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
9 𝑅𝑅
3.6 1.6
3/2 1 √𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 2𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 27𝜋𝜋 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Formula: 𝑇𝑇 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ∫0 = � = ≈ 5.3 ∙
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 √1−𝑥𝑥 2 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 4 𝑐𝑐 3 1
20 13
10 𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1.67 ∙ 10 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

3.7 6x0.2 1.2

1/3
9𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 2
3.8 Formula: 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) = � � 1.2 1.2
2
3𝑀𝑀 1
Formula: 𝜌𝜌(𝑡𝑡 ) = = 0.6
4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅3 (𝑡𝑡) 6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑡𝑡 2
3.9 2 1.2
Formula: 𝐻𝐻 (𝑡𝑡) = 0.6
3𝑡𝑡
3/2 3/2
Formula: 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉0 𝑇𝑇0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0.4
𝑅𝑅 2
0 0.2
3.10 Formula: 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇0 � 𝑅𝑅 � 1.2
𝑡𝑡 4/3 2 4/3 0.6
Formula: 𝑇𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 � � = 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 � � ≈ 5.4 ∙ 1023 𝐾𝐾
𝑡𝑡0 3𝐻𝐻𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡0
Total 10