Lecture Slides

Chapter 17

Flexible Mechanical
Elements

© 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be
copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Chapter Outline

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Flexible Mechanical Elements

Belts, ropes, chains, and other similar elastic or flexible

machine elements are used in conveying systems and in the
transmission of power over comparatively long distances.

It often happens that these elements can be used as a

replacement for gears, shafts, bearings, and other relatively
rigid power-transmission devices.
In many cases, their use simplifies the design of a machine
and substantially reduces the cost.
In addition, since these elements are elastic and usually
quite long, they play an important part in absorbing shock
loads and in damping out and isolating the effects
of vibration. This is an important advantage as far as
machine life is concerned.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 What is Belt?

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more

rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel.
Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit
power efficiently or to track relative movement.
Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between
the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

What is Belt?

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 What is Belt?

▪ The pulley axes must be separated by a certain minimum

distance, depending upon the belt type and size, to
operate properly.
▪ They may be used for long center distances.
▪ Except for timing belts, there is some slip and creep, and
so the angular-velocity ratio between the driving and
driven shafts is neither constant nor exactly equal to the
ratio of the pulley diameters.
▪ In some cases an idler or tension pulley can be used to
avoid adjustments in center
▪ Distance that are ordinarily necessitated by age or the
installation of new belts.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Characteristics of Some Common Belt Types

Table 17–1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Flat-Belt Geometry – Open Belt

Fig.17–1a Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Flat-Belt Geometry – Crossed Belt

Fig.17–1b Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Reversing Belts

Nonreversing and reversing

belt drives.

(a) Nonreversing open belt.

(b) Reversing crossed belt.

Crossed belts must be
separated to prevent
rubbing if high-friction
materials are used.

(c) Reversing open-belt drive.

Fig.17–2 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Flat-belt with Out-of-plane Pulleys

Figure 17–3 shows a flat-belt drive with out-of-

plane pulleys. The shafts need not be at right
angles as in this case. Note the top view of the
drive in Fig. 17–3.

The pulleys must be positioned so that the belt

leaves each pulley in the midplane of the other
pulley face. Other arrangements may require
guide pulleys to achieve this condition

Quarter-twist belt drive; an

idler guide pulley must be
used if motion is to be in both
directions.

Fig.17–3 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Flat-belt Shifting Without Clutch

Another advantage of flat belts is

shown in Fig. 17–4, where clutching
action is obtained by shifting the belt
from a loose to a tight or driven pulley.

This drive eliminates the need

for a clutch. Flat belt can be
shifted left or right by use of
a fork.

Fig.17–4 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Variable-Speed Belt Drives

Figure 17–5 shows two

variable-speed drives.
The drive in Fig. 17–5a
is commonly used only
for flat belts.

The drive of Fig. 17–5b

can also be used for V
belts and round belts by
using grooved sheaves.

Fig.17–5 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Belt Materials
Flat belts are made of urethane and also of rubber-impregnated
fabric reinforced with steel wire or nylon cords to take the tension
load. One or both surfaces may have a friction surface coating.
Usually, flat belting is purchased by the roll and cut and the ends
are joined by using special kits furnished by the manufacturer.

A V belt is made of fabric and cord, usually cotton, rayon, or nylon,

and impregnated with rubber. V belts are made only in certain
lengths and have no joints.

Timing belts are made of rubberized fabric and steel wire and have
teeth that fit into grooves cut on the periphery of the sprockets.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Belt Properties
Flat belts are quiet, they are efficient at high speeds, and they can
transmit large amounts of power over long center distances.

In contrast with flat belts, V belts are used with similar sheaves
and at shorter center distances. V belts are slightly less efficient
than flat belts, but a number of them can be used on a single
sheave, thus making a multiple drive.

The timing belt does not stretch or slip and consequently transmits
power at a constant angular-velocity ratio. The fact that the belt is
toothed provides several advantages over ordinary belting. One of
these is that no initial tension is necessary, so that fixed-center
drives may be used. Another is the elimination of the restriction on
speeds; the teeth make it possible to run at nearly any speed, slow
or fast. Disadvantages are the first cost of the belt, the necessity
of grooving the sprockets, and the attendant dynamic fluctuations
caused at the belt-tooth meshing frequency. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Free Body of Infinitesimal Element of Flat Belt

The friction force on

the belt is
proportional to the
normal pressure along
the arc of contact.

Fig.17–6
The differential force dS is due to centrifugal force,
dN is the normal force between the belt and pulley, and
f dN is the shearing traction due to friction at the point of slip.
The belt width is b and the thickness is t. The belt mass per unit length is m.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Free Body of Infinitesimal Element of Flat Belt

Fig.17–6

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Analysis of Flat Belt

where A is an arbitrary constant. Assuming Ɵ starts at the loose side, the

boundary condition that

Where F1 is the tight side tension and,

F2 is the loose side tension.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Analysis of Flat Belt

At the end of the angle of wrap Ø, the tight side,

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Hoop Tension Due to Centrifugal Force
with n being the rotational speed, in rev/min, of the pulley
of diameter d, in inches, the belt speed is

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Forces and Torques on a Pulley

Fig.17–7

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Initial Tension
The difference between F1 and F2 is related to the pulley torque.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Initial Tension

Equation (17–9) gives us a fundamental insight into flat belting. If Fi equals

zero, then T equals zero: no initial tension, no torque transmitted.

The torque is in proportion to the initial tension.

This means that if there is to be a satisfactory flat-belt drive, the initial

tension must be
(1) provided,
(2) sustained,
(3) in the proper amount, and
(4) Maintained by routine inspection.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Flat Belt Tensions

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Plot of Belt Tension vs. Initial Tension

Fig.17–8
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Transmitted Horsepower

where the forces are in lbf and V is in ft/min.

Manufacturers provide specifications for their belts that include
allowable tension Fa (or stress σall), the tension being expressed in
units of force per unit width.
Belt life is usually several years. The severity of flexing at the
pulley and its effect on life is reflected in a pulley correction
factor Cp.
Speed in excess of 600 ft/min and its effect on life is reflected in a
velocity correction factor Cv. For polyamide and urethane belts use
CV = 1.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Velocity Correction Factor Cv for Leather Belts

Velocity correction factor Cv for leather belts for various thicknesses.

Fig.17–9
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Correction Factors
A service factor Ks is used for excursions of load from nominal, applied to
the nominal power as
Hd = HnomKsnd,
where nd is the design factor for exigencies. These effects are incorporated
as follows:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Pulley Correction Factor CP for Flat Belts

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Steps for Flat-Belt Analysis

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Properties of Some Flat- and Round-Belt Materials

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Properties of Some Flat- and Round-Belt Materials

Table 17–2

The values given in Table 17–2 for the allowable belt tension
are based on a belt speed of 600 ft/min.
For higher speeds, use Fig. 17–9 to obtain Cv values for leather
belts.
For polyamide and urethane belts, use Cv = 1.0.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Suggested Service Factors KS for V-Belt Drives

Table 17–15

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Minimum Pulley Sizes for Flat and Round Urethane Belts

Table 17–3

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Crown Height and ISO Pulley Diameters for Flat Belts

Table 17–5

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–1

Fig.17–10

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Properties of Some Flat- and Round-Belt Materials-
Table17-2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Pulley Correction Factor CP for Flat Belts

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Example 17–1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Properties of Some Flat- and Round-Belt Materials-
Table17-2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–1

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Belt-Tensioning Schemes
Initial tension is the key to the
functioning of the flat belt as intended.

There are ways of controlling initial

tension. One way is to place the motor
and drive pulley on a pivoted mounting
plate so that the weight of the motor,
pulley, and mounting plate and a share
of the belt weight induces the correct
initial tension and maintains it.

A second way is the use of a spring-

loaded idler pulley, adjusted to the
same task. Both of these methods
accommodate to temporary or
permanent belt stretch.
Belt-tensioning schemes.
(a) Weighted idler pulley.
(b) Pivoted motor mount.
Fig.17–11 (c) Catenary-induced tension.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Relation of Dip to Initial Tension

Because flat belts were used for long center-to-center distances, the weight of
the belt itself can provide the initial tension. The static belt deflects to an
approximate catenary curve, and the dip from a straight belt can be measured
against a stretched music wire.
This provides a way of measuring and adjusting the dip. From catenary theory
the dip is related to the initial tension by

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

A decision set for a flat belt

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Properties of Some Flat- and Round-Belt Materials-
Table17-2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Pulley Correction Factor CP for Flat Belts

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–2

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Variation of Flat-Belt Tensions at Some Cardinal Points

Fig.17–12 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Flat Metal Belts
 Thin metal belts exhibit
◦ High strength-to-weight ratio
◦ Dimensional stability
◦ Accurate timing
◦ Usefulness to temperatures up to 700ºF
◦ Good electrical and thermal conduction properties

In addition, stainless steel alloys offer “inert,” non-absorbent

belts suitable to hostile (corrosive) environments, and can be
made sterile for food and pharmaceutical applications.

Thin metal belts can be classified as friction drives, timing or

positioning drives, or tape drives. Among friction drives are
plain, metal-coated, and perforated belts.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Tensions and Torques in Thin Flat Metal Belt

Fig.17–13

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Bending Stress in Flat Metal Belt

A bending stress is created by making the belt conform to the

pulley, and its tensile magnitude σb is given by

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Tensile Stresses in Flat Metal Belt

Largest tensile stress during a belt pass:

Smallest tensile stress during a belt pass:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Belt Life for Stainless Steel Friction Drives

Table 17–6

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Regression Line for Stress and Passes

97702 97702

where Np is the number of belt passes.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Minimum Pulley Diameter

Table 17–7

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Typical Material Properties for Metal Belts

Table 17–8

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Steps for Selection of Metal Flat Belt

97702

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Steps for Selection of Metal Flat Belt

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–3

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–3

97702

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–3

97702

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–3

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Standard V-Belt Sections
The cross-sectional dimensions of V belts have been standardized by manufacturers,
with each section designated by a letter of the alphabet for sizes in inch dimensions.
Metric sizes are designated in numbers. Though these have not been included here,
the procedure for analyzing and designing them is the same as presented here.
Dimensions, minimum sheave diameters, and the power range for each of the
lettered sections are listed in Table 17–9.

Table 17–9

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Inside Circumferences of Standard V-Belts

Table 17–10
To specify a V belt, give the belt-section letter, followed by the
inside circumference in mm (standard circumferences are listed in
Table 17–10).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Length Conversion Dimensions

Calculations involving the belt length are usually based on the

pitch length. For any given belt section, the pitch length is
obtained by adding a quantity to the inside circumference (Tables
17–10 and 17–11).

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 V-Belt Pitch Length and Center-to-Center Distance

The minimum sheave diameters have been listed in Table 17–9.

For best results,
a V belt should be run quite fast: 20 m/s is a good speed.
Trouble may be encountered if the belt runs much faster than 25
m/s or much slower than 5 m/s.

The pitch length Lp and the center-to-center distance C are

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Adjusted Power
The rating, whether in terms of hours or belt passes, is for a belt running on equal
diameter sheaves (180° of wrap), of moderate length, and transmitting a steady
load.
Deviations from these laboratory test conditions are acknowledged by
multiplicative adjustments.
When the belt is used under other conditions, the tabulated value Htab is adjusted
as follows:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Power Ratings of Standard V-Belts

Table 17–12

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Angle of Wrap Correction Factor

Table 17–13
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Belt-Length Correction Factor

Table 17–14

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Belting Equation for V-Belt
In a V belt the effective coefficient of friction f ‘ is f/sin(Φ/2),
which amounts to an augmentation by a factor of about 3 due to
the grooves. The effective coefficient of friction f ‘ is sometimes
tabulated against sheave groove angles of 30°, 34°, and 38°,
the tabulated values being 0.50, 0.45, and 0.40, respectively,
revealing a belt material on-metal coefficient of friction of 0.13
for each case.
The Gates Rubber Company declares its effective coefficient of
friction to be 0.5123 for grooves. Thus:

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Design Power for V-Belt

The design power is given by:

Number of belts:

Nb, is usually the next higher integer to Hd/Ha

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Suggested Service Factors for V-Belt Drives

Table 17–15
Ks Service Factor

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 V-Belt Tensions

Fig.17–14 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 V-Belt Tensions

The centrifugal tension Fc is given by

2.4

The power that is transmitted per belt is based on ΔF = F1 - F2, where

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Some V-Belt Parameters

Table 17–16
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 V-Belt Tensions
Then from Eq. (17–8) the largest tension F1 is given by

From the definition of ΔF, the least tension F2 is

From Eq. ( j) in Sec. 17–2

The factor of safety is

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 V-Belt Tension vs. Passes
Durability (life) correlations are complicated by the fact that the bending
induces flexural stresses in the belt; the corresponding belt tension that induces
the same maximum tensile stress is (Fb)1 at the driving sheave and (Fb)2 at the
driven pulley.
These equivalent tensions are added to F1 as

The equation for the tension versus pass trade-off used by the Gates Rubber
Company is of the form:

where NP is the number of passes and b is approximately 11. See Table 17–17.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Durability Parameters for Some V-Belt Sections

Table 17–17

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 V-Belt Tension vs. Passes

The Miner rule is used to sum damage incurred by the two tension peaks:

The lifetime t in hours is given by

3600

3600V

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Solution Procedure

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Example 17–4

2.4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–4

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Example 17–4

3600

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Timing Belts
A timing belt is made of a rubberized fabric coated with a nylon fabric, and has
steel wire within to take the tension load. It has teeth that fit into grooves cut on
the periphery of the pulleys (Fig. 17–15). A timing belt does not stretch
appreciably or slip and consequently transmits power at a constant angular
velocity ratio. No initial tension is needed. Such belts can operate over a very
wide range of speeds, have efficiencies in the range of 97 to 99 percent, require
no lubrication, and are quieter than chain drives.

Fig.17–15
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Standard Pitches of Timing Belts

Table 17–18

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Roller Chain
Roller chain or bush roller chain is the type of chain drive most commonly
used for transmission of mechanical power on many kinds of domestic,
industrial and agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire- and tube-
drawing machines, printing presses, cars, motorcycles, and bicycles.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Roller Chain

Fig.17–16 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Dimensions of American Standard Roller Chains

Table 17–19
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Engagement of Chain and Sprocket

Fig.17–17

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Chain Velocity

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Chordal Speed Variation

Fig.17–18

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Roller Chain Rated Horsepower Capacity

*Estimated from ANSI

tables by linear
interpolation.

Note:
Type A—manual or drip
lubrication;
type B—bath or disk
lubrication;
type C—oil-stream
lubrication.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Roller Chain Rated Horsepower Capacity

*Estimated from ANSI

tables by linear
interpolation.

Note:
Type A—manual or drip
lubrication;
type B—bath or disk
lubrication;
type C—oil-stream
lubrication.
type C—type C, but this is
a galling region; submit
design to manufacturer for
evaluation.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Available Sprocket Tooth Counts

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Nominal Power Ratings for Chain
 From American Chain Association publication Chains for Power
Transmission and Materials Handling
 For single-strand chain
 Nominal power, link-plate limited

 Nominal power, roller-limited

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Chain Dimensions
 Chain length in pitches

 Center-to-center distance

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Chain Drive Power
 Allowable power

 Power that must be transmitted

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Tooth Correction Factors K1

Table 17–22

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Multiple-Strand Factors K2

Table 17–23

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Variations in Tabulated Power Conditions
 Power ratings in Table 17–20 are for chains of 100 pitch length and
17-tooth sprocket.
 For deviations from this,

 From a deviation viewpoint,

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Recommended Maximum Chain Speed

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Example 17–5

8
Multiple-Strand Factors K2

Table 17–23

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Roller Chain Rated Horsepower Capacity

*Estimated from ANSI

tables by linear
interpolation.

Note:
Type A—manual or drip
lubrication;
type B—bath or disk
lubrication;
type C—oil-stream
lubrication.
type C—type C, but this is
a galling region; submit
design to manufacturer for
evaluation.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Example 17–5

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 17–5

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Lecture Slides

Chapter 17

Flexible Mechanical
Elements

© 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be
copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.