INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

COURSE GUIDE
(Part 4) Business Writing
Additional Units on Speaking Skills

Compiled & Prepared by Alex Simpande

2022

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY. NOT FOR SALE.

Email: consultalex01@gmail.com

1 | Page Communication Skills

4.1 Writing Letters
Watch Writing Letters – part 1 video: https://youtu.be/Tz6XK-liBQk
Watch Writing Letters 2 video: https://youtu.be/_frpJWh5RKI

Learning Objectives:

1. identify the parts of a letter

2. identify the different types of letter formats

Introduction
Letters are official forms of business correspondence. Business correspondence
refers to written communication within an organisation, between organisations, and
between organisations and customers. As a formal means of communication, these
types of documents appear on letterhead. Letters are written for different purposes
and audiences but their main goal is to strengthen and enhance a business’s image,
sales, operations, etc.

The following are the typical parts of a letter: Sender’s address, Date, Receiver’s
address, Salutation, Subject, Body Paragraphs, Complimentary close, Signature and
Name. Letters may be formal or informal and depending on the purpose, audience
and level of formality, there’ll be additional details according to a business’s (or
person’s) in-house style.

Letter formats

There are three common types of letter formats.

1. Block format
2. Modified block format
3. Semi block format (Indented style)

2 | Page Communication Skills

Block Letter Format (Format)

[Sender’s Address]
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................

[Date]
...............................

[Recipient’s Address]
................................
................................
................................
................................

[Salutation]
................................

[Subject/REF]:
................................

..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
...................................

..................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

[Complimentary Close]
Yours sincerely/faithfully

[SIGNATURE]

[Name]
.........................................

3 | Page Communication Skills

Block Letter Format (Example)

P. O. Box 0000
Kitwe
Zambia

August 3, 2022

The Director
IT Technology Services
P/Bag 01111
Ndola, Zambia

Dear Mr. Kabwe

PROJECT FINANCIAL REPORT

Following up on our conversation yesterday, I am enclosing the report as requested

by your office.

Kindly note that the financial details of the proposed project are included in the
Appendix section of the report. The project was approved after three drafts were
submitted for verification.

Please call me if you have any questions.

Sincerely yours,
INS
Ireen Noname Surname
(Project Team Leader).

Encl. (1. Financial Report).

4 | Page Communication Skills

Modified Block Letter

P. O. Box 0000
Kitwe
Zambia

August 3, 2022

The Director
IT Technology Services
P/Bag 01111
Ndola
Zambia

Dear Mr. Kabwe

PROJECT FINANCIAL REPORT

Following up on our conversation yesterday, I am enclosing the report as requested

by your office.

Kindly note that the financial details of the proposed project are included in the
Appendix section of the report. The project was approved after three drafts were
submitted for verification.

Please call me if you have any questions.

Sincerely yours,
INS
Ireen Nosurname
(Project Leader).

Encl. (1. Financial Report).

5 | Page Communication Skills

Semi-Blocked Style/Indented (Format)

[Sender’s Address]
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................

[Date]
...................................................

[Recipient’s Address]
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................

[Salutation]
Dear Sir/Ms/Mrs/Dr

[SUBJECT/REF]:
.....................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
............................................................
.................................................................................................................................

[Complimentary Close]
Yours sincerely/faithfully,

[SIGNATURE]

[Name]
......................................

6 | Page Communication Skills

1.1 Semi-Blocked Style/Indented (Example)

P. O. Box 0000
Kitwe
Zambia

August 3, 2022

The Director
IT Technology Services
P/Bag 01111
Ndola
Zambia

Dear Mr. Kabwe

PROJECT FINANCIAL REPORT

Following up on our conversation yesterday, I am enclosing the report as

requested by your office.
Kindly note that the financial details of the proposed project are included in
the Appendix section of the report. The project was approved after three drafts were
submitted for verification.
Please call me if you have any questions.

Sincerely yours,
INS
Ireen Nosurname
(Project Leader).

Encl. (1. Financial Report).

Practice: Choose a letter format and write the following letters:

1. Job Application/Cover Letter

2. Complaint Letter
3. Adjustment Letter
4. Inquiry Letter

7 | Page Communication Skills

4.2 Memos and Notices
Watch video: https://youtu.be/xQrKl338nZU

Learning Objectives:

1. identify the parts of a memorandum

2. write a memorandum
3. identify the parts of a notice
4. write a notice

Introduction
Memos and notices are forms of business correspondence and play a vital role in ensuring
that communication takes place among stakeholders.

Memos
Memo is short for memorandum. A memo is an official document used for internal
communication purposes within an organisation. It may also be used externally to
communicate with customers and stakeholders. Its purpose is often to inform but may also
contain elements of persuasion and call to action. A memo may communicate policies,
procedures, making requests, salary and allowances increments, acknowledgments, etc.

Memos are usually short but there are longer memos depending on the audience and purpose.
Memos typically use the block format. A memo may be sent by a department to another
department in the same organisation or it could be by a person.

Memo format

ALEX INDUSTRIES LTD

99999 Highway Drive, Tall Trees City, Zambia

TO: Mutinta Masimpe, Operations Manager; Jack Chanda, Financial Manager

FROM: Titus Toonse, Vice President
DATE: August 1, 2022
SUBJECT: Drafting of New Policy

The government has advised that in light of the recent nationwide data gathering exercise
on the use of digital services, all service providers should develop policies and procedures
to guide employees and customers on accessing their digital platforms. There is
overwhelming evidence that our company has not responded fully to customer demands.
This could partly explain the reduction in sales.

Therefore, there is need to refocus and realign our accessibility based on the data and
findings from the nationwide. The operations and finance departments should convene a
meeting to review the data and draft policies to improve service delivery. These should be
presented at the next General Meeting.

8 | Page Communication Skills

Notices
As forms of official communication, notices are important tools in business communication. A
notice contains the name of the issuing organisation, the title NOTICE, the date, the subject
(heading), the body and the writer’s name. Notices may also serve personal reasons/interests.
The body usually answers the questions what, where, when, who and whom?

Notices come in different forms. They are mostly displayed on boards and newspapers but
may also be private for internal purposes in an organisation.

Notice Format

Lost and Found item notice

ALEX INDUSTRIES LTD

99999 Highway Drive, Tall Trees City, Zambia

NOTICE
August 19, 2022

Samsung Galaxy Phone Found

This is to inform all employees that a Samsung Galaxy phone was found by security at the
company cafeteria on August 17, 2022.

The phone is off and does not have any identification marks or contact details of the owner. If
you are the owner of this phone, contact the security office on the first floor on 45475757589.
Please bring proof of identity and a detailed police report.

Thank you,

Mr. Finder
(Chief Security Officer).

9 | Page Communication Skills

Call for a meeting notice

ALEX INDUSTRIES LTD

99999 Highway Drive, Tall Trees City, Zambia

NOTICE
August 19, 2022

Annual Retreat

This to inform all employees that the company is organising an annual retreat for all those who
are interested. The retreat will be held from 19 August to 21 August, 2022. Therefore, you are
invited to a meeting to be held on August 14, at 10:00hrs in the Boardroom to discuss the retreat
logistics. The meeting agenda is attached below for your attention.

Agenda
1. Welcome Remarks
2. List of Attendees
3. Apologies
4. Approval of Agenda
5. Reading and Approval of Minutes (specify date of minutes being approved)
6. Matters Arising/Open Issues
7. Item #1: Retreat Budget
a. Time: 10 minutes (for presentation)
b. Purpose: To share information
c. Leader: Firstname Surname
8. Item #2: Transport Arrangements
a. Time: 15 minutes (for discussion)
b. Purpose: To agree on mode(s) of travel
c. Leader: Firstname Surname
9. Item #3: Retreat Activities
a. Time: 30 minutes (for discussion)
b. Purpose: To decide/choose team building activities
c. Leader: Firstname Surname
10. Adjournment

PeterNN
Mutinta Noname
(Public Relations Director)

Practice Questions:
1. Which type of letter indents paragraphs on the left margin?
2. The subject is not written in a letter. (True of False)
3. A salutation and a complimentary close are not required in a memo. (True or False)

10 | P a g e Communication Skills
 4.3 Writing an agenda and minutes
Learning Objectives:

1. distinguish between an agenda and minutes

2. include an agenda list in a notice (see previous unit)
3. produce minutes of a meeting

Introduction
A meeting is an assembly of people for a particular purpose. All organisations, groups,
clubs, etc. conduct their affairs through meetings.

Documents needed for effective meetings

The following documents serve to ensure successful meetings.

1. Notice – written announcement of a meeting (see previous unit for sample)

2. Agenda – list of items that a meeting has been called to discuss. An agenda list will
appear as follows (take note that there are variations to presenting an agenda:

AGENDA
1. Date
2. Time
3. Location
4. Agenda Item one (Time, Purpose, Leader)
5. Agenda Item Two (Time, Purpose, Leader)

3. Minutes – official written record of resolutions in a meeting.

Minutes typically have the following details (with variations):
 Title of the meeting
 Date, Time and venue of the meeting
 Names of the meetings participants and those unable to attend (apologies)
 Corrections and/or acceptance (adoption) of previous meeting minutes
 Reports of members/officers and/or committees (if any)
 Actions on unfinished business (if any)
 New Business (motions and resolutions)
 Adjournment
 Vote of thanks

Below is a sample of the structure of minutes.

11 | P a g e Communication Skills
 Name of Committee/Organisation
Meeting Minutes
Date
Venue

Call to Order (to signal the start of a meeting)

Members Present: (List of Attendees)

Members Absent: (List of Apologies)

Welcome Remarks (Greeting the attendees, state purpose/overview of meeting)

Confirm Quorum (minimum number of people required for a meeting to proceed)

Approval of Agenda (circulated agenda and new added items)

Reading and Approval of Minutes (specify date of minutes being approved)

Matters Arising/Open Issues (State issue, assign any action item e.g. corrections)

Agenda Item #1: Title of the item

Motion: Moved by [name] that [state motion].
Discussion/Resolutions:(summarize the discussion at the meeting)
Motion carried OR Motion failed.
Action: (list any action to be taken by whom and by when)

Agenda Item #2: Title of the item

Motion: Moved by [name] that [state motion].
Discussion/Resolution: (summarize the discussion at the meeting)
Motion carried OR Motion failed.
Action: (list any action to be taken by whom and by when)

Agenda Item #3: Title of the item

Motion: Moved by [name] that [state motion].
Discussion/Resolutions:(summarize the discussion at the meeting)
Motion carriedOR Motion failed.
Action: (list any action to be taken by whom and by when)

Announcements: (list any announcements made)

Future Agenda Items: (list any suggested agenda items to be tabled for the next meeting)

Adjournment/Next Meeting: Meeting was adjourned at .......... (time) by.........(name).

(List Date/Time/Location of the next meeting)

Minutes submitted by: Indicate Name

Approved by: Indicate Name

NB: Minutes of meetings should be written and emailed to all members for review within one week of the meeting.
Copies may also be provided at the next meeting.

12 | P a g e Communication Skills
 4.4 Writing reports
Watch video Report Writing 1 (Short Reports): https://youtu.be/h4JXmG0fkeQ
Watch video Report Writing: The Long Report: https://youtu.be/vzLUxpw65qs

Learning Objectives:

1. Identify different types of reports

2. State the purpose and use of different reports
3. Produce a simple generic report
4. Produce a schematic report
5. Prepare and present an incident/accident report

Introduction
Reports are written for different purposes. They contain different information and
come in diverse formats. They may or may not include headings and subheadings
but this is dependent on the type of report.

Scope and structure of reports

The scope and style of reports vary depending on three key factors:
 The report's intended audience
 The report's purpose and
 The type of information to be communicated

All reports are presented in formal and organised format backed with facts,
examples and/or statistical evidence where necessary.

Functions of a report
Reports are used for:
 Judging performance
 Informing change
 Fact finding
 Pointing causes of problems e.g., low margins, high rate of staff turnover,
accidents in factories, etc.
 Suggesting measures to overcome the business problems
 For improvement of operational or technical assignments, planning
procedures, and solving problems
 Decision Making

Parts of a generic report

This section outlines the common features of a generic report that may be applied in
most situations/contexts. A more specific example of the schematic report is given
afterwards. A common report will contain the following sections:

1. Title page
The title page should contain details such as the full title of the report; name(s) of the
author(s); purpose for which the report is prepared; name of the institution for which
the report is prepared; month and year of report.

13 | P a g e Communication Skills
 2. Executive summary
The executive summary is a brief of the whole report in a logical order. This should
highlight the purpose, research methods, findings, conclusions, and
recommendations. An executive summary should be written in the past tense and
should not be longer than 1 page. Though this section is included in the first part of the
report, it is easier to write this part, after completing the rest of the report.

3. Introduction
This is one of the most important paragraphs. An effective introduction introduces the
topic and purpose of the report or essay and outlines your approach, that is, the main
ideas that will be developed within it. After reading the introduction, the reader should
be able to know (i) the purpose of the paper and (ii) the main ideas which will be
covered within it.

4. Method/Methodology
This is the section where you explain the methods used in your research. If it is a
scientific research, you can describe the experimental procedures.

5. Results\Findings
This section presents the results or findings of your project/research. You can also
present data using visual methods such as tables, graphs, etc. However, do not
interpret the findings here.

6. Discussion
In this section, you can explain what the above results mean. You can also analyse,
interpret and evaluate data, note trends, and compare results with theory. Generally,
this is referred to as the most important part of the report.

7. Conclusions
This is a brief summary of findings. Conclusions should not be confused with the
Results/Findings section. The conclusion is a simplification of the problem that can
reasonably be deduced from the findings.

8. Recommendations
In the recommendations section, suitable changes and solutions should be provided.

9. Appendices/ Annexes
These generally contain detailed information which is not essential in the main
chapters of the report but which need to be reproduced. Examples of material suitable
for appendices include a copy of any questionnaire or interview outline used in the
research, economic information, background information on units of analysis used in
the study, list of abbreviations used in the report, etc.

10. References
Sometimes it is necessary to indicate the sources of your information such as books,
journals, newspapers, etc. that were used in the report.

PRACTICE

ACCIDENT/INCIDENT REPORT
As a lab instructor, the university administration has asked you to write a report on an incident involving
three students who were severely injured and mildly burnt during one of your lab sessions.

14 | P a g e Communication Skills
(2) As the class representative in the communication skills class at Copperbelt University, you have
been asked to report on first year students’ unrest in the class. Submit your report to the Lecturer of the
Communication Skills class.

Example of a schematic report

REPORT ON PROPOSED NEW FACTORY SITE: FARM 19

1. TERMS OF REFERENCE
This report is in accordance with the instructions of the Board, to report on the possibility of acquiring a
site for a new factory in Kitwe on Farm 19 and make recommendations as appropriate.

2. PROCEDURE
This report was compiled following a visit to Farm 19. Interviews were conducted with the Farm Estate
Manager, local building companies and the local office of the Department of Employment.

3. FINDINGS (FARM 19)

3.1 Location and Facilities
Farm 19 is a purpose-built enterprise situated approximately two kilometres from Kitwe,
with which it has easily accessible road communication. Water, light and power supplies on
the estate are already in place, thus requiring no action on the part of the company in this
regard. Rate charges compare favourably with those in similar industrial areas nationwide.
3.2 Proposed Site
The particular site offered to the company is well drained, adjacent to the main road which
passes through the estate, and is within half a mile of the Kitwe-Ndola Road.
3.3 Building and Planning Permission
Contractors are available to commence building work with immediate effect.
Furthermore, following the Government’s designation of the proposed site as a
‘development area’, the necessary planning permission will also be readily obtainable.
3.4 Labour
3.4.1 Skilled/Semi-skilled
Supplies of skilled and semi-skilled staff are plentiful. The employment of 300 local
personnel is highly likely to be welcomed by the Department of Education and
Employment as it would be of great benefit to local communities in the area.
3.4.2 Skilled/Technician
It would be necessary for the Company to employ a number of skilled operatives and
technicians.
3.4.3 Accommodation
The accommodation of the key workers is likely to present difficulties, as the
housing shortage in the area remains acute. Building temporary hostel
accommodation or using local hotel accommodation could act as interim solutions to
this problem.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The site has:
a. Good access to roads and motorways
b. Favourable facilities
c. Competitive rate charges
d. A local supply of skilled and semi-skilled labour
e. Immediate availability of a local workforce
f. No known planning problems

Despite the current difficulties surrounding accommodation, the site appears to suit the Company’s
requirements in all other aspects.

5. RECOMMENDATION
That the Company accept the site and proceed with the building of the factory with immediate
effect.

15 | P a g e Communication Skills
Signed:
P. J. Kabotu
Special Development Officer

[Example adapted from Stanton, N. (1996). Mastering Communication (3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan]

In addition, one of the most important reports that an undergraduate students will have
to write is the research report. This report is the culmination of a student’s academic
journey and is undertaken in the final year of study. A basic guideline of the format is
shared below:

SAMPLE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements................................................................................. i
Table of Contents.................................................................................. ii
List of Tables......................................................................................... iv
List of Figures........................................................................................ v

Abstract

Chapter 1...............................................................................................1-4
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study.........................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem................................................................ 1
1.3 Purpose of the Study........................................................................ 2
1.4 Significance of the Study.................................................................. 2
1.5 Research objectives/Research questions/Hypotheses.................... 3
1.6 Limitations and Delimitations............................................................ 3
1.7 Definition of Terms........................................................................... 3
1.8 Organisation of the Study................................................................ 4

Chapter 2................................................................................................5-25
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...................................................5

2.1 ......................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 .......................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 .......................................................................................... 8
2.2......................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1.......................................................................................... 12
2.2.2.......................................................................................... 15
2.3......................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1.......................................................................................... 18
2.3.2.......................................................................................... 20
2.4......................................................................................................... 21
2.4.1.......................................................................................... 22
2.4.2.......................................................................................... 23

Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design/Type of Research.............................................. 26-29

16 | P a g e Communication Skills
3.2 Population...................................................................................... 26
3.3 Sample........................................................................................... 26
3.4 Sampling Procedure....................................................................... 27
3.5 Data Collection and Treatment....................................................... 28
3.5.1 Data Collection Tools/Instrumentation............................. 28
3.5.2 Data collection procedures ………………………………...28
3.5.2 Data Treatment (Ethical Issues) ..................................... 28
3.5.3 Data Analysis Tools......................................................... 29

Chapter 4 ..............................................................................................30 - 40
PRESENTATION OF DATA, ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Information about the sample..........................................................30 -32

4.2 Basic Data for Analysis....................................................................33 – 35
4.3 Analysis of data and testing of hypothesis......................................35 – 40
4.4 Discussion/Interpretation of findings …………………………………40 – 45

Chapter 5 ...............................................................................................46 – 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary ..........................................................................................46
5.2 Conclusions ......................................................................................47-48
5.3 Recommendations ............................................................................49-50
5.4 Suggested Areas for further studies .................................................50-51

REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
 Introductory letter
 Ethical clearance
 Questionnaires
 Interview Sheet
 Observation Protocol
 Sample work collected
 Other relevant information

17 | P a g e Communication Skills
 ADDITIONAL UNITS

Meetings
Learning Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Chair a meeting
2. Use correct procedures to manage a meeting
3. Use appropriate language during a meeting
4. Explain the roles of members in a meeting

Introduction
A meeting is an assembly of people for a particular purpose (Merriam-Webster.com). All
organisations, groups, clubs, etc. conduct their affairs through meetings. Regardless of format,
meetings can be classified into the following:

1. Regular meetings
2. Special Meetings/Extra-Ordinary
3. Annual Meetings
4. Electronic Meetings

An agenda is a list of items that the meeting has been called to discuss. Members should
receive the agenda well before the meeting. To put an item on the agenda, contact the
Chairperson or Secretary.

Minutes are the official record of what happened at a meeting. Minutes are usually distributed
a few days after the meeting and at the next meeting. Members will decide to accept them as
a true record.

A motion is a formal recommendation put by a member to a meeting for debate and

consideration, by saying “I move that....” There are two types of motions:
a. Substantive motions: deal with the business of the organisation
b. Procedural motions: deal with the way the meeting is run
Each motion should be seconded by another person before it is open for discussion.

Making a motion:
1. Member rises or raises hand “Mr./Madam President or Chairperson”
2. Chair recognises the member
3. Member “I move that ___________________________ (states motion)”
4. Seconder “I second the motion or seconded”
5. Chair states the motion “It has been moved and seconded that...”
6. Discussion: First priority is given to the mover of the motion
7. Chair says, If there is no further discussion
8. Vote: All those in favour of _______________ (the motion stated). Those
opposed/against.
9. Result of the vote is stated by the chair: “The motion is carried” or “The motion is lost”.

Amending a motion: Types of amendments

1. Primary – an amendment that applies directly to the main motion
2. Secondary (amendment of the amendment) – an amendment that applies directly to
the primary amendment

18 | P a g e Communication Skills
 3. No amendment beyond the above is in order

Officers
1. President or chairperson: This is the presiding officer
a. Prepares the agenda
b. Controls the meeting
c. Opens meetings on time as designated
d. Enforces rules of correct procedure
e. Maintains order
f. Ensures that there is equal and balanced participation of all members
2. Secretary: This is the recording officer.
a. Keeps a permanent record of the proceedings
b. Circulates the agenda
c. Writes and distributes minutes
3. The treasurer/finance officer is the custodian of the funds
a. In charge of the funds
b. Prepares budgets
c. Gives report when and as needed
4. Members
a. Attend meetings
b. Contribute/participate in all proceedings
c. Vote on all motions
d. Perform roles assigned by the Chairperson or other senior officer
e. Recognise and respect other members
f. Undertake any necessary preparation prior to the meeting.
g. Arrive on time.
h. Keep an open mind.
i. Listen to the opinions of others.
j. Participate.
k. Avoid dominating the proceedings.
l. Avoid conflict situations.
m. Avoid side conversations which distract others.
n. Ask questions to clarify understanding.
a. Note down any action agreed upon. (See Note-Taking)
b. After the meeting, undertake any agreed action and brief others as appropriate

Find more at: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/conduct-meeting.html#ixzz3IeKurVRE

Other Terms

1. Call to Order – Not debatable (Privileged Motion)

2. Call question
3. Point of Order – Not debatable (Incidental Motion)
4. Withdraw a motion – Not debatable (Incidental Motion)
5. Postpone to a Definite time – Debatable (Subsidiary motion)
6. Table a motion
7. Recess meeting
8. A tie

PRACTICE

See Script.

19 | P a g e Communication Skills
Interviews
Learning Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the importance of interviews
2. Explain the basic structure of an interview
3. Describe different interview formats
4. Produce different kinds of interview questions
5. Understand the role of non-verbal communication during interviews

Introduction
An interview is a communication transaction that emphasizes questions and answers
(Lumsden & Lumsden, 2004). Rob Anderson and George Killenberg (1999, p. 2) elaborate on
this defi nition by noting that the word interview suggests “a sharing of views” in which the
interviewer and interviewee are involved and in which listening and speaking are equally
important (Purdy & Borisoff, 1997)

Structure of interviews: planning and conducting

1. The Opening Stage
2. The Substantive stage
3. The Closing Stage

Styles of interviewing: Formality, Balance of Power

Purposes and types of interviews

Persuasive interviews: The aim is to influence attitudes or actions (Anderson, 1995). In a sales
interview, a salesperson attempts to persuade a customer to buy a product or service.

Counselling interviews: The focus is on understanding and resolving a problem. In a

counselling interview, however, the problem is not mutual. A client has a problem, such as
stress, depression, or compulsiveness that she or he wants to address. The counsellor
attempts to help the client understand the problem more fully and collaborates with the client
to develop strategies for coping with or overcoming the difficulty (Anderson, 1997; Smith,
1996). Counselling interviews also occur outside the therapeutic setting.

Employment interviews: This allows employers and job candidates to assess each other and
determine whether there is a good fit between them. Typically, employment interviews include
periods of information giving and information getting as well as persuasive efforts on the part
of both participants.

Complaint interviews: This type of interview allows people to register complaints about a
product, service, or person.

Performance Interview/Appraisals: Most organisations require performance reviews, or

performance appraisals, at regular intervals. By building performance appraisals into work life,
organisations continuously monitor employees’ performance and foster their professional
growth. Performance review is an occasion on which a supervisor comments on a
subordinate’s achievements and professional development, identifies any weaknesses or
problems, and collaborates with the subordinate to develop goals for future performance.
During the interview, subordinates should offer their perceptions of their strengths and
weaknesses and participate actively in developing goals for professional development.

20 | P a g e Communication Skills
Supervisors should comment on strengths as well as areas for improvement and may act as
coaches to encourage professional development (Waldroop & Butler, 1996).

When a person’s work is unsatisfactory or when the person is creating tensions with co-
workers, a supervisor may conduct a reprimand interview. The goals are to identify lapses in
professional conduct, determine sources of problems, and establish a plan for improving future
performance.

Stress interviews: These are designed to create anxiety in respondents or interviewees.

Although they may involve gaining or giving information, persuading, or other interview
purposes, stress interviews are unique in their deliberate intent to apply pressure. Typical
communication techniques for inducing stress are rapid fire questions, intentional
misinterpretations and distortions of the interviewee’s responses, and hostile or skeptical
nonverbal expressions.

Exit interviews are increasingly popular. The goal of this type of interview is to gain information,
insights, and perceptions about a place of work or education from a person who is leaving.

Types of questions in interviews

1. Open Questions
2. Closed Questions
3. Mirror Questions
4. Hypothetical Questions
5. Probing Questions
6. Leading Questions
7. Summary Questions

Preparing for interviews

1. Research. Gather information
2. Engage in Person-Centred Communication
Don’t ask what you want to tell the interviewer about yourself or what you think is
Most important. Instead, take the position of the interviewer as you anticipate the
interaction
3. Practice responding to interview questions
4. Know how to manage illegal questions
 Know the law
 Respond carefully

Nonverbal communication and interviews

(Refer to Unit on nonverbal communication).

21 | P a g e Communication Skills
Debate
Learning Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. To present and/or defend a position using logos, ethos and pathos
2. Appreciate the value of debate
3. Describe different debate formats
4. Participate in a public debate on a current issue

Introduction
What is a Debate? A debate is a structured argument between two teams of debaters.

Requirements/rules of debate

Topic
It should be controversial and worded as an affirmative statement (of fact, value or policy).
Usually referred to as the resolution, proposition, or Bill.

Teams
Two temporary coalitions (usually of two or three debaters a side) called the Affirmative (Pro,
Government or Proposers) and the Negative (Con, Opposition, or Opposers).

Tools
Facts, charts, pictures, logic, humour, homilies, emotional appeals, dramatic delivery. Words,
words, words. But no weapons.

Objective
Affirmative must prove the resolution, Negative rebut it. These roles are reversed if the
Negative introduces a counterplan (in which case, the Negative assumes the burden of proof).

Officials
The Moderator: (“Speaker” in Parliamentary style) calls the debate to order, announces the
topic, introduces the debaters and officials, outlines the rules, maintains order, asks the judges
to consider (and when desired, announce) their decision, congratulates the debaters, thanks
the judges and adjourns the debate.

The Timekeeper: (“Clerk” in Parliamentary style) carefully keeps track of speaking times,
advises debaters (with cards or hand signals) how much speaking time remains, and signals
(usually by standing up) when the speaking time and any period of grace have expired.
Allowances should be made for interruptions.

The Judges: are usually adults who are expected to be non-partisan and to decide which team
won the contest on the basis of what the debaters said, disregarding their own beliefs,
prejudices, or special knowledge of the topic. Judges should sit apart from and not confer with
other judges before completing their score sheets.

Order of Speeches
The Affirmative team enjoys the first speech and the last word. The constructive speeches
alternate between the teams “Affirmative, Negative, Affirmative ...” while rebuttals alternate
between the teams “Negative, Affirmative, Negative ...” Intermissions between speeches are
generally not encouraged as they can interfere with the spontaneity of the debate. Rebuttal is
attacking the other team’s arguments and evidence and defending your own (sometimes

22 | P a g e Communication Skills
called refutation). This is the clash that characterises good debating and is encouraged
throughout the debate (except during Cross-Examinations). In the Cambridge format of
rebuttal, each debater has a separate rebuttal speech; in Oxford format, only one debater for
each team has such a speech.

Styles of Debate

In Academic style, each team member gives a constructive speech. Depending on the
rebuttal format, one or all members of each team give a rebuttal-defence-summary speech.
There is then an opportunity for debaters to complain about rule violations and having been
misquoted or misrepresented by their opponents. Heckling may be allowed.

In Cross-Examination style, the procedures are the same as those in Academic style, though
no heckling or points of information are allowed. After each constructive speech, the debater
who delivered it is questioned (cross-examined) by an opponent. Strict rules govern the
witness (debater being questioned) and the examiner (questioner). After all speeches and
cross-examinations, there is an opportunity for debaters to complain about rule violations and
having been misquoted or misrepresented by their opponents.

In Parliamentary style, debaters assume Parliamentary roles (such as Prime Minister,

Leader of the Opposition) as they debate the Bill. Except for the Prime Minister, each debater
delivers a speech which is expected to include rebuttal; the Prime Minister has a (shorter)
opening speech and an Official Rebuttal. Debaters may heckle and raise Points of Order and
Points of Privilege. Points of Information are no longer permitted.

Role of Debaters
In competitive contests, debaters are trying to persuade the judges that their team should be
awarded the decision, as well as to score high individual marks. When a debate team receives
a topic, its members need to analyse the resolution carefully to determine exactly what an
affirmative team must prove in order to discharge the burden of proof, then decide how to go
about this. In either an impromptu or a prepared debate, students should divide arguments
and evidence among themselves.

23 | P a g e Communication Skills
Persuasive Speaking
I. STATE PROPOSITION

II. INTRODUCTION:

a. Attention Grabber: (Statement to wake the audience up/ make sure they are
listening!) This is potentially the most important line; if the audience doesn’t like
the opening, they may ignore the following ideas and concepts.
b. Thesis: (Tell listeners what action you want them to take—OR—how you want them to
think.) This statement is to inform the audience of the speaker’s mindset and try to get
the audience to see the issue their way.
c. Qualification: (Tell listeners your personal experience with your topic, making you qualified
to affect their opinions about it.)

III.BODY:

After the introductory portion of the speech is over, the speaker starts presenting
reasons to the audience to provide support for the thesis statement. After each reason,
the speaker lists examples as evidence to try and provide a factual argument to sway
listeners’ opinion. Cite your sources in your outline (and as you are speaking).

a. Reason 1: (Tell one reason why listeners should act or think the way your thesis
suggests.)
i. Example 1—Support for reason given above.
ii. Example 2—Support for reason given above.
iii. Example 3—Support for reason given above.
iv. Present opposition’s claim and refute argument.
TRANSITION SENTENCE: (Smoothly connect Reason 1 with Reason 2)

b. Reason 2: (Give listeners a second reason why they should act or think as you want
them to.)
i. Example 1—Support for reason given above.
ii. Example 2—Support for reason given above.
iii. Example 3—Support for reason given above.
iv. Present opposition’s claim and refute argument.
TRANSITION SENTENCE: (Smoothly connect Reason 2 with Reason 3.)

c. Reason 3: (This should be your STRONGEST argument. Tell listeners the most
important reason why they should act or think the way you want them to.)
i. Example 1—Support for reason given above.
ii. Example 2—Support for reason given above.
iii. Example 3—Support for reason given above.
iv. Present opposition’s claim and refute argument.
SIGNAL THE WRAP UP! (Move smoothly from Reason 3 to the conclusion of
your speech.

IV. CONCLUSION:

The conclusion is the most important part of a persuasive speech besides the
introduction and thesis statement. This is where the speaker must sum up and tie in all
of their arguments into an organized and solid point.

24 | P a g e Communication Skills
 a. Summary: (Briefly remind listeners why they should agree with your position.)
b. Memorable Ending/Audience Challenge: (End with a powerful closing thought or
recommended course of action.)
c. Thank audience for listening!

Read examples of persuasive speech outlines using this link:

https://open.library.okstate.edu/speech2713/chapter/17-6-sample-persuasive-speech-
outlines/

25 | P a g e Communication Skills
 Bibliography

Debate
 Adapted from: Brian. Gogan
Meetings
 http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/conduct-meeting.html#ixzz3IeKurVRE
Interviews
 USC Career Center, careers@usc.edu • http://careers.usc.edu Rev. 10/12
 http://interview.monster.com/articles
 Communication in Interviews. Online PDF.
 Read examples of persuasive speech outlines using this link:
Persuasive Speaking
 https://open.library.okstate.edu/speech2713/chapter/17-6-sample-persuasive-
speech-outlines/
Stanton, N. (1996). Mastering Communication (3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan

NB: For quotations on ADDITIONAL UNITS, visit the original source indicated. Materials on
ADDITIONAL UNITS were taken verbatim from source.

26 | P a g e Communication Skills