Pure Appl. Geophys.
168 (2011), 1645–1668
Ó 2010 Springer Basel AG
DOI 10.1007/s00024-010-0197-7
Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions: a Case Study from Guwahati City, Northeast India
S. K. NATH1 and K. K. S. THINGBAIJAM1
Abstract—The 1897 Great Shillong earthquake revealed con-
siderable seismic susceptibility in Guwahati City, such as soil
liquefaction, landslides, and surface fissures. In an attempt to
quantify the seismic vulnerability of the city based on geological,
seismological, and geotechnical aspects concerning seismic site
characterization, in-depth analysis was performed using a micro-
tremor survey with recordings of five small to moderate magnitude
(4.8 B mb B 5.4) earthquakes that occurred in 2006 and geotech-
nical investigations using the Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
Additionally, the basement topography was established using ver-
tical electrical resistivity sounding and selected drill-hole
information. Region-specific relationships are derived by correlat-
ing the estimated values of predominant frequency, shear-wave
velocity, and basement depth indicating conformity with the pre-
dominant frequency distribution and the basin topography
underlain by a hard granitic basement. Most parts of the city adhere
to the predominant frequency range of 0.5–3.5 Hz, setting aside
areas of deep sediment fills or hilly tracts, suggesting that the
existing moderate-rise RC buildings in the territory are seismically
vulnerable. Furthermore, the geotechnical assessment of the soil
liquefaction potential reveals widespread susceptibility across the
terrain. Eventually, a site classification map of the city is prepared
following the National Earthquake Hazard Program (NEHRP)
provision. The average site amplification factor from geotechnical
modeling for site class D is about 3 in the frequency range of
2–4 Hz. In addition, earthquake data yield an average site ampli-
fication factor of 4–6 in the frequency range of 1.2–5.0 Hz at the
seismic stations located in site class E and F. High site amplifi-
cations of around 5.5 and 7.5 at 2 Hz, respectively, are observed at
AMTRON and IRRIG seismic stations, which are located in the
proximity of Precambrian rocks, indicating probable basin edge
effects—scattering and diffraction of incident energy. Interplay of
dispersed valleys surrounded by small hillocks in the study region
is likely to induce micro-basin effects where the sediment thick-
ness/depth vis-à-vis predominant frequency and basin geometry in
conjunction play pivotal roles in the augmentation of site response.
Key words: Guwahati city, predominant frequency, shear-
wave velocity, site classification.
1
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India. E-mail:
nath@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in
Pure and Applied Geophysics
1. Introduction
The surface geology and soil conditions in sedi-
mentary basins have considerable influence on the
ground motions induced by an earthquake, causing
significant amplifications (e.g., PHILLIPS and AKI, 1986;
AKI, 1988; SU et al., 1992; KATO et al., 1995; BONILLA
et al., 1997a, b; NATH et al., 2002a, b). Seismic waves
generated by a fault dislocation are modulated as they
propagate through the medium. An understanding of
the associated phenomena can be drawn from source,
path, and site effects apart from the material charac-
terization. As far as the site effects are concerned, the
three-dimensional real earth model is complex and
difficult to emulate. Therefore, a simple 1D model is
generally considered by assuming the medium to be
horizontally homogeneous and isotropic, but vertically
inhomogeneous as accounted for by the impedance
contrasts due to younger sediments overlying the older
ones. From an engineering perspective, it is preferred
to predict the ground motions at ‘‘engineering bed-
rock’’ on which the foundations of built structures are
laid. The so-called engineering bedrock or the base-
ment is usually defined as the onset of Tertiary
formation or hard Pleistocene deposit. SATOH et al.
(1995) delineated the engineering bedrock with the
sedimentary rock of Pliocene or earlier age with the
S-wave velocity of 500 m/s or larger and a Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) blow count of 50 or more.
Conventionally, the engineering bedrock has been
assumed to be at the uppermost layer, having an
S-wave velocity C760 m/s of the soil column in
accordance with the National Earthquake Hazard
Reduction Program (NEHRP) provisions (e.g., ANSAL
et al., 2005). In view of the site effects dominating the
overall hazard, site characterization is often performed
to differentiate zones with similar seismic responses.
Such characterization is implemented with shear-wave
1646 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
velocity and predominant frequency of the ground, the
latter being measured as the frequency corresponding
to the maximum site amplification of the ground
motion that is controlled by the focusing effects from
soil-bedrock topography and lateral inhomogeneity in
the soil stratigraphy (NAKAMURA, 2000; MUCCIARELLI
and GALLIPOLI, 2001). The shear-wave velocity pro-
files, on the other hand, are employed in the soil
response modeling. The velocity reflects the strength
and impedance contrasts between the materials and
eventually is related to the expected amplification at
the site of interest. Ultimately both parameters, i.e.,
shear wave velocity and predominant frequency, allow
definition of seismic susceptibility for appraising the
damage potential of a devastating earthquake.
Guwahati City is located in northeast India where
the seismic source potential surpasses that of great
earthquakes, indicating high seismic vulnerability of
the urban agglomerations in the territory (e.g.,
THINGBAIJAM and NATH, 2008; NATH et al., 2008a, b).
The damage patterns associated with the historical
earthquakes are generally considered to be the indi-
cators of the seismic susceptibility of an urban area.
OLDHAM (1899) reported widespread destruction in the
city during the 1897 Great Shillong earthquake (MW
8.1) that occurred at a hypocentral distance of about
70 km from the city; the seismic intensity observed
was VII–VIII on the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik
scale (AMBRASEYS and BILHAM, 2003; BILHAM, 2008).
Reportedly, the earthquake induced liquefaction of
considerable areas adjoining the Brahmaputra River,
causing land fissures, landslides, rockfalls, wide-
spread slumping, and spreading of the ground between
the hilly tracts on the southern bank of the river. In
recent times, a population explosion in the city has
caused unplanned habitations and construction of
houses, encroachment into the hilly terrains, and
reclamation of natural water bodies, inadvertently
increasing the seismic vulnerability of the terrain.
Seismic microzonation studies in the city have
been envisioned in order to facilitate planned urban
growth with appropriate building code provisions for
the development of lifeline facilities. In that direc-
tion, assessment of the geotechnical characteristics of
the near-surface geology constitutes the most
important task and is dealt with extensively in this
study. The data collected across the city through
Pure Appl. Geophys.
geotechnical and geophysical investigations com-
prised of vertical electrical resistivity sounding
(VES), drill holes, and microtremor surveys are used
to establish correlations among shear-wave velocity,
predominant frequency, and basement depth. The
basement depth distribution of the study region is
worked out on the basis of VES results and selected
borehole data, while the microtremor data are used to
estimate the predominant frequency. The SPT data
logged at boreholes with depth variation from the
ground surface to around 30 m are used to derive the
shear-wave velocity profile at the down-hole sites and
thereafter averaged to estimate the effective
shear-wave velocity. The liquefaction susceptibility
in the terrain is evaluated by geotechnical analysis.
Eventually, site classification of the terrain is
accomplished taking into consideration the shear-
wave velocity distribution and the pertinent soil
conditions. The aspects of different geological
formations and their geotechnical characteristics are
also judiciously examined. This analysis considers
equivalent linear geophysical problems in an other-
wise non-linear complex domain in which the scope
of inhomogeneity and anisotropism is limited to
homogenous and isotropic conditions of a layered
earth model.
2. Background Settings
Guwahati City covers an area of about 600 km2
bounded between the longitude 91° 300 –91° 500 E and
latitude 26° 050 –26° 120 N. Owing to its strategic
location, significant socioeconomic importance is
attached to the city, which is the largest in the region
and a home to a diversified and multiethnic popula-
tion. In addition to being the political state capital of
Assam, it is also an active business hub and a host to
several educational and economic institutions.
The city is located on the lower Brahmaputra
basin between tectonic grains of the Himalayan
mobile belt to the north and the Shillong plateau to
the south. The geological and geomorphological
background of the city is depicted in Fig. 1. The
terrain manifests mainly interspersed Precambrian
granitic rocks forming the hill tracts and isolated
hillocks and a valley filled with Quaternary alluvium
Vol. 168, (2011)
Geological and geomorphological map of the Guwahati region (after NATH et al. 2008a, b) depicting the locations of geotechnical boreholes,
microtremor recording stations, seismic stations, and VES/lithological section profiles as shown by the lines AA0 , BB0 , and CC0 , respectively
deposited over the basement of hard granitic rocks.
The steep-sided hillocks on the southern and eastern
fringes rise to an average height of 400 m above
mean sea level (msl), while those within the valley
elevate up to approximately 300 m above msl at
several places. The hard granitic rock basement of the
shallow basin exhibits a coincidence of the engi-
neering and the seismic bedrock in most parts of the
region. The alluvium deposits could be classified into
five aggradational units based on lithological char-
acters, state of weathering, order of superposition,
and unconformity. They, in order of increasing
antiquity, are (1) active flood plain and levee deposit,
(2) Digaru surface, (3) Bordang surface, (4) Sonapur
surface, and (5) Pediment surface. The sludge col-
lected during drilling of boreholes of up to 120 m
depth for groundwater exploration indicates that
sand, silt, clay, and gravel alternate in irregular pro-
portions with extensive lateral variations. Significant
disparities in the geological and geomorphological
features indicate a likely variation in the seismic
response across the terrain.
Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1647
Figure 1
3. Data
With the aim of seismic hazard microzoning of
the city, a consorted effort towards data compilation
was undertaken involving deployment of geotechni-
cal instruments, borehole drills, and extensive ground
surveys (DST, 2007). Geological Survey of India
(GSI) conducted vertical electrical-resistivity sound-
ing (VES) employing the standard Schlumberger and
Wenner techniques (e.g., PATRA and NATH, 1999) at
selected traverses in the city. Three layers of rocks
have been identified at depths with resistivity values
of 200, 100, and 25 Xm. The electrical resistivity
observations and litho-stratigraphic data from 30
selected boreholes drilled to the basement for
groundwater exploration and those located closer to
the hillocks were used to derive the basement
topography of the study region. The onset of the hard
granitic layer overlying the alluvium overburden is
considered the basement. The basement, thus
observed (exposed at several places), is comprised of
hard rock of granitic composition, wherein the
1648 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
engineering and seismic bedrock merges into one
entity prohibiting identification of critical contrast
between the two hazard-related terminologies.
Accordingly, the engineering bedrock considered in
this study is defined by the rock condition having S-
wave velocity between 760 and 1,500 m/s. SPT
N value data were collected from 200 boreholes
drilled across the terrain, as depicted in Fig. 1, with
penetration up to 24–30 m in most of the cases.
Typical sub-surface conditions in the region are
presented in Fig. 2, which depicts section profiles and
the basement zonation.
In another geophysical investigation, a microtre-
mor (ambient noise) survey was conducted jointly by
the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and GSI
in the city. Several CMG-6TD (sensitive to 60 s–
80 Hz) and SS-1 (sensitive to 1–50 Hz) seismometers
with digital (Reftek and Kinemetrics) recorders were
deployed at the locations as depicted in Fig. 1 with a
total of 141 recording stations to account for
approximately one station per square kilometer. The
exact locations of all the stations were determined
through a built-in GPS system with a precision of
0.0001 degree. The data acquisitions were conducted
according to the recommendations of BARD, (2000)
and MUCCIARELLI, (1998). Sufficient data covering
24 h to several days were collected at each site
addressing day, night, and local variations to generate
hourly data for the spectrum analysis, each of which
was sub-divided into 8–10 min providing 6–8 data
files, and the pertinent uniform wave-train analyzed
for any spurious inconsistency that could be induced
by heavy traffic or spurious transients. New wave-
form data files were created by separating a portion of
the smooth common wave train of about 120 s from
each of the waveform data files. An appropriate data
portion of each file was used for spectrum analysis
according to the time window length selection crite-
ria. A generally accepted rule of thumb is that the
window length should have at least ten cycles for the
lowest frequency analyzed (e.g., BARD, 1998). In the
present study, a 30-s time window length was used.
Additionally, Kinemetrics Altus K2 strong-
motion accelerographs were installed at 12 sites of
significant landmarks/installations across the city by
the Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG)
as a part of the seismic microzonation initiative. The
Pure Appl. Geophys.
Figure 2 c
a Typical subsurface conditions in Guwahati City depicted by
section profiles as indicated in Fig. 1: A–A0 (adapted from DST,
2007), B–B0 , and C–C0 derived from VES and geotechnical
borehole litholog data. b The basement zonation map of the region
derived from VES and selected borehole data (adapted from DST,
2007)
dynamic range of the systems is 108 dB, 200 sam-
ples/s, and 18-bit resolution. Each of the systems has
been set with a trigger level of 0.1% of the full-scale
sensitivity (2 g). The present analyses make use of
five earthquakes that occurred during 2006 and were
recorded with a good signal-to-noise ratio (C3) at
several stations.
4. Methodology and Results
The local soil is known to exhibit different pre-
dominant frequency depending upon its physical
property and the sediment thickness, as well as varia-
tions due to focusing at the soil-bedrock interface and
diversity in the layering and lateral continuity within
various soil layers. The shear-wave velocity often
increases with the confining pressure (e.g., DOBRY and
VUCETIC, 1987), which in turn is proportional to the
basement depth. As revealed by laboratory tests, an
increase in pressure leads to soil compaction and hence
an increase in the shear wave velocity. However, the
variation of shear wave velocity within the stratum
column in the sedimentary basins may not have a
monotonic trend owing to different material proper-
ties. The relation between shear wave velocity and the
basement depth is therefore appropriate when the
average shear wave velocity is considered as a repre-
sentative of the overall overburden. Similarly,
predominant frequency ‘fr’ and the basement depth ‘h’
can be connected by means of an average shear
velocity in a simplistic manner, although the variations
in physical characteristics of the soil could be com-
plicated, as suggested by BARD (2000). For a single
layer over a half space earth model, the average shear-
wave velocity (VavS ) can be written as
VSav ¼ 4  h  fr ð1Þ
The predominant frequency is known to have
inverse correlation with the basement depth. IBS-VON
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1649
1650 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
SEHT and WOHLENBERG (1999) suggested the relation
between the two parameters to follow a power law
model,
h ¼ aðf r Þb : ð2Þ
The average shear-wave velocity can also be
related to the thickness in a similar fashion following
DELGADO et al. (2000),
VSav ¼ x  hy : ð3Þ
The relations given by Eqs. 2 and 3 are reckoned
to introduce durability in geo-spatial extrapolations/
interpolations of the parameters. Further, they pro-
vide an expedient tool in the regions with similar
geology for the first-order assessment of either
parameter in case one parameter is known. Such
relations act as a thumb rule in geotechnical and
geophysical investigations from regional and global
perspectives, e.g., the Cologne Area, Germany
(PAROLAI et al., 2002), Bajo Segura Basin, SE Spain
(DELGADO et al., 2000), and the Lower Rhine
Embayment, Germany (IBS-VON SEHT and WOHLEN-
BERG, 1999), and in Southern Italy (D’AMICO et al.,
2004).
4.1. Predominant Frequency
Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR)
analysis on microtremor (ambient noise) measure-
ments offers the advantage of easy data acquisition,
as well as being inexpensive and reliable (e.g.,
NAKAMURA, 1989, 2000; LUZÓN et al., 2001). The
theoretical basis has been contentious and the
approach mostly experimental. The HVSR curve
has been implicated in body waves (e.g., NAKAMURA,
2000; HERAK, 2008) as well as surface waves (e.g.,
KONNO and OHMACHI, 1998; ARAI and TOKIMATSU,
2005). On the basis of theoretical modeling, ALBA-
RELLO and LUNEDEI (2009) observed surface-wave
approximation to be consistent with the larger
frequencies and the body wave interpretation to
concur with the predominant frequency and its
vicinity. At the same time, the dependence of HVSR
on the source distribution (e.g., human activities in
the area) yields minor aberrations to the location of
the HVSR maximum. Several studies have demon-
strated the applicability of the microtremor analysis,
Pure Appl. Geophys.
especially on soft soils where clear HVSR peaks can
be ascribed to the contrast at the soil-bedrock
interface (e.g., FIELD et al., 1995; LACHET et al.,
1996; BARD et al., 1997; MUCCIARELLI, 1998; MUCC-
IARELLI et al., 2003; SESAME, 2004; GOSAR et al., 2009;
GALLIPOLI et al., 2009a). The results from site effects
assessment using the Ambient Excitations (SESAME,
2004) Project of the European Commission delivered
assessments on the HSVSR technique, guidelines,
and recommendations for probable applications.
In the present analysis, the SPEC program tagged
with SEISAN (HAVSKOV and OTTEMOELLER, 2000)
was used for the computation of Fourier spectra of
individual components and relative spectra of hori-
zontal versus vertical (H/V) components. The
spectral amplitudes were accordingly smoothed with
a one-third of octave band filter before computing
the HVSR, which is done until a distinct peak is
obtained and at times going to 300 iterations (e.g.,
AL YUNCHA et al., 2004). Figure 3a depicts a few
representative plots of the average HVSR against
frequency (after SINGH et al., 2008). The correlation
between basement depth and predominant frequency
is established as given in Eq. 2. The basement depths
obtained from VES at 34 points located in the
proximity of the microtremor survey stations are
used for the analysis. The correlation through
orthogonal distanced regression assigning equal
weight to both the abscissa and ordinate, as depicted
in Fig. 3b, is deduced as,
h ¼ 125ð1:22Þfr1:495ð0:407Þ : ð4Þ
Equation 4 is similar to those given by IBS-VON
SEHT and WOHLENBERG (1999) and PAROLAI et al.
(2002), observed, respectively, at the Lower Rhine
embayment and the Cologne area, Germany. The
estimated basement depths are consistent with the
predominant frequency in the range of 0.5–3.5 Hz. It
is to be noted that the exponent term among the three
regional relations (Fig. 3b) does not vary signifi-
cantly, implying that in the generic model given by
Eq. 2, the coefficient ‘a’ is region specific (e.g.,
DELGADO et al., 2000). The spatial distribution of the
predominant frequency in the study region is depicted
in Fig. 4. Overall, the different frequency responses
are seen to conforming to the geomorphological
signatures in the study region.
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1651

Figure 3
a Representative plots of HVSR against frequency in Guwahati City—the mean values are given by continuous curves, and the standard
deviation of each is depicted by the grey shades. b The basement depth against the predominant frequency plot wherein different correlating
models are depicted

4.2. Shear-Wave Velocity SCHNABEL et al., 1972). The parameter relates to

physical properties of the surface deposit/weathered
The shear-wave velocity is used in earthquake
layer such as fabric, aging, compaction, structure,
engineering for site response modeling (e.g.,
1652 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 4
Predominant frequency distribution map of Guwahati City

constituents, degree of weathering, and alterations of

seismic motions. The fundamental model given by
Eq. 3 connects the average shear-wave velocity to the
basement depth. We compute the average shear-wave
velocity with Eq. 1 using the basement depths and the
observed predominant frequency at the selected
microtremor observation sites. Non-linear regression
analysis performed thereafter on the data pairs of
average shear-wave velocity and basement depth, as
shown in Fig. 5, yields the following,

VSav ¼ 101ð14:9Þ  h0:03ð0:052Þ : ð5Þ

The relation shows higher uncertainties with
increasing basement depth. As depicted in the
diagram, the function is close to the one given by
PAROLAI et al. (2002). The average shear wave
velocity is ascribed to the overburden thickness.
However, site classification schemes are generally
based on the shallower depth in view of the near-
surface affinity to the site effects in addition to the
cost and convenience for the engineering practices Figure 5
(e.g., FIELD et al., 2000; STREET et al., 2001). In fact, The predicted relationship between average shear-wave velocity
and basement depth derived for the study region and that of
JOYNER et al. (1981) observed that the velocity to a PAROLAI et al. (2002) for Cologne, Germany, is depicted by solid
depth equal to one-quarter wavelength of the period and dashed lines, respectively
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1653

of the propagating wave train from resolution point of Table 1

view represents the site conditions appropriately. Several relations between SPT N value and shear wave velocity,
Several studies, to name a few, BORCHERDT et al. VLS , available for different soil types
(1991), BOORE et al. (1997), DOBRY et al. (2000), and Soil-type Relations Author(s)
FIELD et al. (2000), have formulated site amplifica-
tions as a function of average shear-wave velocity for Clay VLS = 5.3 N ? 134 FUMAL and TINSLEY
(1985)
the upper 30 m of the subsurface, i.e., effective shear- VLS = 114.4 N0.31 LEE (1990)
wave velocity (V30 S ). The parameter is also used by VLS = 165.7 N0.19 PITILAKIS et al. (1992)a
both the NEHRP and the Uniform Building Code VLS = 105.7 N0.33 RAPTAKIS et al. (1995)a
VLS = 184.2 N0.17 RAPTAKIS et al. (1995)b
(UBC) to classify sites for earthquake engineering
VLS = 27.0 N0.73 JAFARI et al. (2002)
(BSSC, 2001). The parameter has also been incorpo- VLS = 80.2 N0.292 IMAI (1977)
rated as the site term in the ground motion prediction VLS = 97.9 N0.269 HASANCEBI and ULUSAY
equations (e.g., POWER et al., 2008). (2007)
Sand VLS = 5.1 N ? 152 FUMAL and TINSLEY (1985)
A straightforward and widely used technique for VLS = 56.4 N0.50 SEED et al. (1983)
shear-wave velocity estimation is the conventional VLS = 57.4 N0.49 LEE (1990)
SPT data analysis. Several empirical relations VLS = 162.0 N0.17 PITILAKIS et al. (1992)c
VLS = 100.0 N0.24 RAPTAKIS et al. (1995)
between SPT N values and lithological shear-wave VLS = 123.4 N0.29 RAPTAKIS et al. (1995)d
velocity (VLS ) are available as listed in Table 1; these VLS = 80.6 N0.331 IMAI (1977)
are often used to overcome the absence of in situ VLS = 100.5 N0.29 SYKORA and STOKOE
(1983)
measurements with explication of their applicability
VLS = 90.8 N0.319 HASANCEBI and ULUSAY
for a study region. The present study region, with (2007)
Archean hillocks exposed in places and undulating VLS = 22.0 N0.76 CHIEN et al. (2000)c
basement topography bearing a Precambrian gneissic Gravel VLS = 192.4 N0.13 RAPTAKIS et al. (1995)
VLS = 63.0 N0.43 SYKORA and KOESTER
complex, falls into the category of thin alluvium (1988)
characterized by smaller basins underlain by harder Silt loam/ VLS = 4.3 N ? 218 FUMAL and TINSLEY (1985)
bedrock. Higher shear-wave velocity range is usually sandy
clay
observed in such geological settings as compared to All VLS = 91.0 N0.34 IMAI (1977)
the deeper basins (e.g., WILLS and CLAHAN, 2006). VLS = 85.35 N0.348 OHTA and GOTO (1978)
It has been observed that VLS values cluster around VLS = 121.0 N0.27 YOKOTA et al. (1991)e
VLS = 61.0 N0.50 SEED and IDRISS (1981)
the mean values for different soil types (e.g., OHSAKI
VLS = 107.6 N0.36 ATHANASOPOULOS (1995)
and IWASAKI, 1973; TONOUCHI et al., 1983). Loose soil VLS = 22.0 N0.85 JAFARI et al. (1997)
conditions such as that of sands are expected to VLS = 116.1 JINAN (1987)
exhibit lower Vav (N ? 0.3185)0.202
S ; however, for the same N value,
VLS = 51.5 N0.516 IYISAN (1996)
which is indicative of soil compactness, sand can VLS = 97.0 N0.314 IMAI and TONOUCHI (1982)
exhibit higher velocity (e.g., IMAI, 1977; OHTA and VLS = 82.0 N0.39 OHSAKI and IWASAKI
GOTO, 1978; FUMAL and TINSLEY, 1985; HASANCEBI (1973)
VLS = 92.1 N0.337 FUJIWARA (1972)
and ULUSAY, 2007). FUMAL and TINSLEY (1985) VLS = 90.0 N0.309 HASANCEBI and ULUSAY
implicated ‘sandy clay’ and ‘loam soils’ in higher (2007)
VLS for similar N values compared to other soil types. a
Soft clay
The control of the N value over VLS , notwithstanding b
Stiff clay
the influence of the soil type, yields average relations c
Silty sand
when soil types are not considered to account for a d
Loose sand
larger number of observations (e.g., HASANCEBI and e
Adapted from JAFARI et al. (2002)
ULUSAY, 2007). On the other hand, the soil classifi-
cations enable geologically constrained predictions. ‘silt loam and sandy clay,’ and ‘sand and gravelly
The equations of FUMAL and TINSLEY, (1985) based on sand,’ are preferred in the present study due to their
different soil textures, namely ‘clay and silty clay,’ coherency with the observed soil lithology. The
1654 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
Figure 6
Several relations between SPT N value and shear wave velocity as
depicted along with the median trend (bold line) and the dashed lines
representing 95% prediction bounds. It is observed that: a in the case
for clay and clayey soils, the median trend to be well aligned to that of
FUMAL and TINSLEY (1985), while b in the case of sand and gravelly
sand including gravel, the relation given by the same authors is
reasonably consistent with the median at lower N value; however, it
yields higher shear-wave velocity as the N value increases. c Avail-
able relations between SPT N value and the shear-wave velocity for
all types of soil conditions plotted together with those of FUMAL and
TINSLEY (1985) classified on the basis of soil textures
Pure Appl. Geophys.
implications, thereupon, are examined through com-
parisons with that of several available correlations via
assessment of a linear median trend through least
squares fit that employs minimization of the least
absolute residuals. The relation for ‘clay and silty
clay’ is seen to be comparatively moderate, as shown
in Fig. 6a. Although the relation for ‘sand, gravelly
sands, and gravels’ yields higher VS values at larger
N values as depicted in Fig. 6b, it is reasonably
consistent with the median at the lower N values.
Figure 6c presents an overall comparison between the
three relations and those available for all soil types,
indicating that the relations for clayey and sandy soils
are closer to the median trend, while that for ‘silt
loam and sandy clay’ yields higher VS estimates for
the same N values. However, the latter trend matches
satisfactorily with that given by ATHANASOPOULOS
(1995). The estimation of shear-wave velocity is
depicted with two representative borehole logs given
in Fig. 7a.
Eventually, V30
S is computed at each borehole site.
However, in cases where the bedrock is found to be
located within a depth of 30 m, the average shear-
wave velocity of the overburden thickness, rather
than V30
S , considered as the presence of rock would
escalate V30S . The spatial distribution of VS
30
is
depicted in Fig. 7b. Although the estimated velocities
range from 180 to 360 m/s, the maximum number of
observations is within 220–280 m/s.
4.3. Soil Liquefaction, Site Classification,
and Site Response
NEHRP recommends provisions for seismic reg-
ulations according to site classes (A–E) defined for
similar seismic responses. The site classes A and B
are assigned to hard rock and rock site conditions
with V30 -1
S [ 1,500 ms , and within 760–1,500 ms ,
-1
respectively, while site class C is designated to soft
rock, hard, or very stiff soils, or gravels exhibiting
V30 -1
S in the range of 360–760 ms , and stiff soils with
30
VS in the range of 180–360 ms-1 are designated to
be in the site class D. However, site class E is
implicated in a soil profile with more than 3 m of soft
clay defined as soil with a plasticity index (PI) [ 20,
moisture content (w) C40%, and average undrained
shear strength (Su) \25 kPa, while site-specific
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1655

Figure 7
a The soil strata, SPT N, and the corresponding shear-wave velocity profile depicted for two closely located boreholes. b The spatial
distribution of V30 30
s across Guwahati City. The estimated Vs at the borehole sites is seen to range between 180 and 360 m/s with the maximum
number of observations exhibit a range of 220–280 m/s

testing and evaluation are warranted for the identi- seismic loading such as liquefiable soils, quick and
fication of site class F. All of the four categories of highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly
soil are considered to be indicative of site class F: (1) cemented soils, (2) peats and/or highly organic clays
soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under (soil thickness [ 3 m) of peat and/or highly organic
1656 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
clay, (3) very high plasticity clays (soil thickness
[8 m with PI [75, and (4) very thick soft/medium
stiff clays (soil thickness [36 m). Geological attri-
butes are often connected to shear-wave velocity in
view of the limited number of observation sites (e.g.,
WILLS and SILVA, 1998). On the basis of the
overlapping ranges of V30 S accorded to different
geological units, WILLS et al. (2000) introduced
intermediate classes, namely BC, CD, and DE
corresponding to an average V30 S of 760, 360, and
180 ms-1, respectively.
4.3.1 Soil Liquefaction
In the present study, the alluvial deposits of mainly
Pleistocene-Holocene sediments in the overall terrain
predominantly come under site class D as inferred
from the V30S distribution. However, soft soil sites and
marshy lands (reclaimed at several places) over the
active flood plain and levee deposits (soil embank-
ment along the river), and Digaru and Bordang
surfaces are liable to come under site class E or F.
While site class E is identified from the geotechnical
considerations, soil liquefaction susceptibility is
evaluated in the study region to identify site class
F. The resistance of the soil to earthquake-related
liquefaction mainly depends on density, fabric,
cementation, and age of the soil, whereas the
susceptibility increases with earthquake magnitude,
duration, and the extent of shear-stress reversal. The
present investigation is based on the data acquired at
each borehole at down-hole intervals of 1.5 m. The
water table is seen mostly at 1.5 m, but ranges from
0.0 to 6.6 m across the borehole dataset. The fine
grain criteria based on two factors, namely the ratio
of water content to liquid limit (wc/LL) and soil
plasticity index (PI), as proposed by BRAY and SANCIO
(2006), is used to evaluate the susceptibility of plastic
soils. The susceptible zones are identified with wc/LL
[0.85 and PI \12, while moderately susceptible
zones are identified with wc/LL [0.8 and PI \18.
The Factor of Safety (FOS) against soil liquefaction
is designated to be less than 1 and equal to 1,
respectively, in the former and the latter cases.
Thereafter, the methodology based on SPT data
analysis given by YOUD et al. (2001) is followed for
non-plastic soils. It involves estimation of the cyclic
Pure Appl. Geophys.
stress ratio (CSR) and cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) to
arrive at the Factor of Safety (FOS) ratio of the two
factors whose value equals one or less than one,
indicating soil liquefaction susceptibility. The seis-
mic demand of a soil layer is represented by CSR,
while the capacity of soil to resist liquefaction is
represented by CRR. The shear stress generated at the
soil column excited by a propagation of shear wave
velocity at the base can be computed as,
 
amax
ðsmax Þd ¼ 0:65rd r0 ð6Þ
g
where (smax)r represents maximum shear stress, r0 is
the total overburden pressure, amax is the peak hori-
zontal acceleration, rd is a correction factor for a
deformable body, which is termed the stress reduction
coefficient, and g represents acceleration due to gravity
(SEED and IDRISS, 1971). In the present study, the
average values of rd are estimated using the relations
given by CETIN et al. (2004). The CSR is computed as
r0 amax
CSR ¼ 0:65 0 rd ð7Þ
r0 g
0
where r0 is the initial effective overburden pressure,
which is given as,
P 
0 di c   
r0 ¼ dj P i  9:81 dj  wl ð8Þ
di
where dj is the depth interval of each N value, di is the
depth at which the soil lithology changes, wl is the
depth of the water table, and ci is the average unit
weight of the material. The CRR values are estimated
from N1(60) values using the relationships provided by
YOUD et al. (2001). These relationship curves were
developed for granular soils with fine contents of 5 or
less, 15, and 35% for magnitude MW 7.5 earthquakes.
The magnitude scaling, e.g., MW 8.7, is achieved by
means of the magnitude scaling factor (MSF) such that,
 
CRR7:5
FOS = MSF: ð9Þ
CSR
Following YOUD et al. (2001), the magnitude
scaling factor (MSF) is computed as,
MSF = 102:24 =MW
2:56
: ð10Þ
The scaling factor provides an approximate rep-
resentation of the effects of shaking duration or the
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions
Figure 8
A representative synthetic accelerogram generated through sto-
chastic finite fault modeling at the bedrock level for a reverse
faulting earthquake with scenario magnitude of MW 8.7 nucleating
from Shillong plateau with a hypocentral distance of *70 km
equivalent number of stress cycles enabling the
adjustment of the induced CSR during an earthquake
for a specific magnitude to an equivalent CSR for a
magnitude of MW 7.5.
For the assessment of peak horizontal accelera-
tions, synthesized base motion for scenario
earthquake magnitude of MW 8.7 nucleating from
the hypocenter of the 1897 Shillong earthquake
simulated by NATH et al. (2009) is used. A represen-
tative synthetic accelerogram obtained at COTTON
seismic station is depicted in Fig. 8.
Soil liquefactions associated with the 1897 Shil-
long earthquake in Guwahati City were not fully
reported, probably because the earthquake-related
phenomenon was not well-known during that period
of time. The 1897 Shillong earthquake induced
widespread soil liquefaction and deformations in
Guwahati City, which can be inferred from the
accounts of OLDHAM (1899) and BILHAM (2008). The
latter discussed several personal observations of La
Touche, a geologist with GSI during the period. From
these reports, we could gather several pieces of
information, such as (1) deformations were observed
along the banks of Brahmaputra River, some of
which were likely to be associated with soil lique-
faction, (2) sands and floods with fissures were
reported, with devastation of crops at unnamed
locations, and (3) fissures, likely induced by soil
liquefaction, developed across the road connecting
Sukleswar Ghat and Bhorolumukh on the southern
bank of the river. The likely liquefaction sites during
1657
the 1897 Shillong earthquake are indicated by
inscribing square boxes on the site classification
map given in Fig. 9.
4.3.2 Site Classification
The site classification of the city was eventually
achieved by demarcating the zones of site classes CD,
D, E, and F as presented in Fig. 9. For the liquefac-
tion susceptibility zonation purposes, a buffer area of
500 m around each identified site was created on a
Geographical Information System (GIS) platform and
modified thereafter according to the geological con-
ditions in the immediate vicinity. The zones identified
as liquefiable soil (FOS \ 1) and at point of failure
(FOS = 1) are, irrespectively, classified as site class
F. On the other hand, the low-lying Precambrian
residual hills interspersed across the terrain are
classified as rock sites. The narrow tracts underlying
older (Pleistocene) alluvium, gravel, and soft rocks
are placed under the site class CD.
The HVSR can be inverted through Monte Carlo
perturbation of the initial model parameters to
generate best fit soil models (e.g., HERAK, 2008).
This analysis can provide a supplementary analysis to
reinforce the present observations and provide yet
another perspective to overcome geophysical ambi-
guity. In the present study, a representative
geotechnical model is derived using the observed
average HVSR spectra computed from the earthquake
data. In case of ambient tremors, an anthropogenic
origin consisting mostly of horizontally traveling
surface waves could violate the fundamental assump-
tion of a body wave field and therefore needs critical
examinations. The amplitudes of H/V ratios are
usually interpreted either as related to the ellipticity
of surface waves or response of the ground conditions
to the excitation of the body wave field. The
interpretations in terms of body waves assume
vertical incidence of SH waves on the stratified soil
layers similar to the theoretical amplification of S
waves for geotechnical models (NAKAMURA, 2000;
HERAK, 2008). A MatlabÒ code developed by HERAK,
(2008) based on the excitation of the body wave field
is used in the present study. The algorithm for the
inversion to determine the best fit soil model has been
described by the author. The methodology is based on
1658 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 9
Site classification map of Guwahati City prepared following the extended National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP)
nomenclature of WILLS et al. (2000). The likely liquefaction sites during the 1897 Shillong earthquake are depicted with square boxes

Monte Carlo search in the model space minimizing
the misfit function,
X different models could provide the same solutions; in
m¼ f½HVSRobs ðfi Þ  HVSRtheo ðfi ÞW i g2 : ð11Þ
i
HVSRobs and HVSRtheo stand for the observed
and the theoretical HVSR, respectively. Wi represents
the weights assigned to each of the frequencies, with
the highest being allocated to the largest HVSR
value. The analysis at the COTTON station is
illustrated as follows. The model space consists of
six parameters for each layer (excluding the half-
space) as listed in Table 2. HVSRtheo is computed as
the ratio of S-wave and P-wave amplifications,
respectively, considering that the horizontal and
vertical motions are the same on average at the
engineering bedrock level. The final model achieved
is depicted in Fig. 10. The results at the seismic
stations indicate conformity of the site classification
with V30 30
S = 212 m/s at IITG, VS = 238 m/s at
IRRIG, VS = 187 m/s at COTTON, V30
30
S = 327 m/s
at AMTRON, and V30 S = 167 m/s at AEC. It is to be
noted that inversion problems can be ill-posed, i.e.,
that respect, the present results correspond to a
solution constrained by the initial model parameters.
4.3.3 Site Response
The HVSR, better known as Nakamura’s technique
(NAKAMURA, 1989), is applicable only to ambient
noise-driven site effects in terms of predominant
frequency. In case of the recorded earthquake wave-
form data, there are three widely used site response
estimation techniques, namely classical standard
spectral ratio (SSR), generalized inversion (GINV),
and HVSR receiver function (RF) type. In case of
SSR, there is the requirement of a reference site,
whose site response is flat and modulated around the
amplification factor of 1. At the same time, GINV
necessitates a constraining inversion scheme with a
known site response at one or more sites. On the other
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1659

Table 2
The initial model constructed using geotechnical data from the adjacent borehole site and the final models of the 1D soil profile at the
COTTON station consisting of S-wave and P-wave velocity (VS and VP), density q, and S-wave and P-wave attenuation coefficients (QS and
QP), respectively

VP (m/s) VS (m/s) q (gm/cc) h (m)a QP QS

Initial model
596 266 1.78 6 26 13
466 208 1.78 6 26 13
671 300 2.2 6 26 13
648 290 2.23 6 26 13
614 274 2.25 6 26 13
1,192 637 2.25 15 108 54
1,192 637 2.25 15 108 54
1,192 637 2.25 15 108 54
1,192 637 2.25 15 108 54
1,762a 788a 2.25a ?a ?a ?a
Final model
180 (±18) 50 (±05) 1.70 (±0.17) 6 29 (±3) 19 (±2)
435 (±44) 109 (±10) 1.74 (±0.17) 6 37 (±4) 20 (±2)
844 (±85) 383 (±38) 2.04 (±0.20) 6 37 (±4) 20 (±2)
577 (±58) 189 (±19) 2.3 (±0.23) 6 47 (±5) 16 (±2)
625 (±63) 206 (±21) 2.3 (±0.23) 6 47 (±5) 20 (±2)
1,263 (±126) 316 (±32) 1.7 (±0.17) 15 47 (±5) 20 (±2)
1493 (±150) 540 (±54) 1.7 (±0.17) 15 60 (±6) 20 (±2)
1,244 (±125) 719 (±72) 2.3 (±0.23) 15 60 (±6) 20 (±2)
1,765 (±177) 1020 (±102) 2.3 (±0.23) 15 37 (±4) 20 (±2)
1,762a 788a 2.25a ?a ?a ?a
a
Fixed values

hand, the RF type does not necessarily have the

Figure 10
HVSR and amplification spectra are depicted where the fitting model
is inverted on the basis of theoretical body wave amplification.
S-amp and P-amp denote S-wave and P-wave amplifications,
respectively
requirement of either a reference site or site/s with
known site response. In the present study, we have a
global problem in the application of the first two
techniques because of the absence of a reference site.
It has been observed globally by several workers that
SSR and GINV are consistent in the assessment of site
amplifications. However, there are several opinions
regarding the site amplification estimate by RF
methodology that has emerged globally through
experimentations carried out in different terrains by
several workers. LERMO and CHAVEZ-GARCIA (1993)
proposed the H/V ratio (RF type) using intense parts
of the S-wave envelope for site response assessment
and observed that the RF estimates mimic the site
amplifications computed using the classical SSR on
the basis of analyses carried out at three different
cities in Mexico. PAROLAI et al. (2004), NATH et al.
(2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2005), BONILLA et al. (1997a, b),
1660 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
CHÁVEZ-GARCÍA et al. (1997), LACHET et al. (1996),
and FIELD and JACOB (1995) reported scattering in
the estimated amplitudes computed using the RF
technique when compared to those estimated by SSR.
Overall, the RF technique conforms to simple geo-
logical considerations where amplifications of the
vertical components are negligible (PAROLAI et al.,
2004; Nath et al. 2002a, b, 2003, 2005), especially in
the lower frequency range (\8 Hz), which does not
have severe contamination from surface waves
(LACHET et al., 1996). LACHET et al. (1996) demon-
strated that the consistency of the RF technique is
frequency dependent, with the reliable range falling
below 8 Hz. The data from the site response studies in
the Sikkim Himalayas, Delhi basin, and Garhwal
Himalayas, respectively, from NATH et al. (2002a, b,
2003, 2005), as depicted in Fig. 11, depict reasonable
compliance between the site amplifications derived
using the RF type and GINV techniques. CASTRO et al.
(2004) also observed that site functions computed by
both the techniques are similar within the standard
deviations of the estimates at several sites. Since the
predominant frequency observed at the seismic
stations comes within the pertinent lower frequency
range in the present study at Guwahati City and
Figure 11
A comparison between site amplification factors obtained using the
generalized inversion (GINV) technique and those obtain by means
of the receiver function (RF) type method using the data from NATH
et al. (2002a, b, 2003, 2005)
Pure Appl. Geophys.
seldom crosses the 8 Hz limit as suggested by LACHET
et al. (1996), the RF technique as suggested by LERMO
and CHAVEZ-GARCIA (1993) can be expected to define
at least the lower bound for the site amplification
estimates with significant applicability in the site
characterization.
The 1D site response distribution in the study
region has been estimated by NATH et al. (2008a, b)
through SHAKE 2000 (ORDONEZ, 2004) at the bore-
hole sites. An equivalent linear model was used in the
analysis, which accounts for recurring and systematic
cyclic loading on horizontally layered soil deposits
with expected elliptical hysteresis loops in the shear
stress and strain behavior. The shear modulus and
damping reduction curves were assigned on the basis
of the soil attributes from the geotechnical data
according to inbuilt functions of the software. The
curves used for clay and sand are those given by SUN
et al. (1988), and SEED and IDRISS (1970), respectively.
The mean site amplification factor derived from
geotechnical modeling, as depicted in Fig. 12a, is
observed to be around 3 in the frequency range
2–4 Hz. The average site response curves from the
earthquake data through frequency averaging at each
seismic station are depicted in Fig. 12b–f.
5. Discussion
A strong earthquake occurred on 21 September
2009 with a magnitude of MW 6.1 in the eastern
Bhutan province at the epicenter 27.346° N, 91.412°
E, which is around 133 km NNW of Guwahati City.
Several high-rise buildings in the city developed
cracks, and incidentally, a seven-story building
located in the Bhangagarh area (site class F) tilted
because of the earthquake impact, corroborating the
present assessment of the soil conditions.
5.1. Predominant Frequency
The structural damages inflicted by an earthquake
are logically tied with appropriate seismic design
code adaptations. Nevertheless, the damage distribu-
tions are often seen to be dependent on the resonance
effect because of the proximity between the predom-
inant frequency of soil layers and natural frequency
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1661

Figure 12
a Mean site response amplification factor from the estimated amplification spectra by means of geotechnical modeling at 136 borehole sites in
the site class D zones across Guwahati City is depicted by the bold curve while the normal curves indicate ±1 SD. b–f Average site response
curves through frequency averaging observed at the seismic stations

of the buildings (e.g., NAVARRO and OLIVEIRAM, 2006).
In order to present a rudimentary assessment, a
current building footprint map of the city as depicted
in Fig. 13a is adapted from the building inventory
compiled by Assam Engineering College. The build-
ing typology, namely Type A (mud, adobe, timber
frame), Type B (brick masonry buildings), and Type
C (reinforced concrete buildings), is followed accord-
ing to BMTPC (1997). The categorization based on the
number of stories is: 1–3 is defined as ‘low rise,’ 4–7
as ‘moderate rise,’ and C8 as ‘high rise.’ The
assortment of residential building distribution con-
sists mostly of low rise buildings (Type A, B, and C),
while the commercial locations have predominantly
moderate- to high-rise buildings (Type C).
Figure 13b depicts different relations between
height of the building and the fundamental natural
period. Most of the inhabited parts of Guwahati City
are interspersed between the hillocks. Low-rise to
moderate-rise buildings are predominately observed
there, while the predominant frequency of the ground
mostly lies in the range 0.5–3.5 Hz. The relationship
given by GALLIPOLI et al. (2009b) puts the building
distributions in a seismically safe zone, while that of
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 2002) indicates
that moderate-rise to high-rise buildings are seismi-
cally vulnerable. The different predictions given by
the relationships mentioned here can be attributed to
the diversity of the construction practices across the
globe, especially between India and Europe. All the
same, the observations in the study region suggest
that moderate- to high-rise buildings in the city are
seismically vulnerable. This warrants tackling the
implicated resonance effects with measures like
structural retrofitting (e.g., stiffening, introducing
damping in building components, etc.) in addition
to determining building code provisions for future
developments. In summary, the spatial distribution of
predominant frequency constitutes a first-cut hazard
map that is not only useful for vulnerability analysis
of built environments, but also for structural devel-
opment and urban planning. The present appraisal is
intended to be followed by building-specific analysis
(e.g., GOSAR et al., 2009; GALLIPOLI et al., 2009b).
1662 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 13
a The building footprints in the city adapted from the inventory prepared by Assam Engineering College as a part of a consorted effort towards
seismic microzonation and risk assessment in the city. b The relationships between fundamental natural frequencies versus building heights
(in terms of number of story/s and 1 story *3.0 m) are depicted. The grey shaded zone covers the predominant frequency range of 0.5–3.5 Hz
observed across the inhabited areas of Guwahati City, and dashed lines denote the average upper and lower values of the overall predominant
frequency distribution. The categories of buildings are indicated as low, moderate, and high rise, respectively, according to BMPTC (1997)

5.2. Shear Wave Velocity, Site Classification,
and Site Response
In the present study, we derived region-specific
relations among shear-wave velocity, predominant
frequency, and basement depth in line with those
observed in other parts of the globe. The borehole logs
of two sites, as depicted in Fig. 7a located adjacent to
a microtremor survey location near Boragaon, exhibit
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions 1663

basement depths of around 27.5–29.0 m. On the other
hand, the electrical resistivity sounding surveys place
the basement depth at the site at approximately 30 m.
The corresponding microtremor data analysis indi-
cates a predominant frequency of 2.5 Hz, which
indicates a basement depth of approximately 32 m
using Eq. 4. Consequently, average shear wave
velocity in the range of 301–310 m/s could be
estimated by Eq. 5 with basement depths ranging
between 27.5 and 30.0 m. The estimated V30 S at
the boreholes ranges between 242 and 287 m/s. The
relations apparently yield reasonable estimates of the
parameters, suggesting the consistency thereof.
In case of the applicability of relationships between
shear-wave velocity and SPT N value, a strategy has
been adopted to add to the knowledge of the litho-
stratigraphic setting in the study region by several
analyses involving comparisons of existing relations
reported from across the globe by various workers. In
order to establish the practical viability of the strategy,
the site responses are derived from 1D geotechnical
modeling and the earthquake recordings located in the
close vicinity and calibrated. Figure 14a depicts a
comparison between estimated site amplification fac-
tors from the 1D geotechnical modeling using the
borehole data and that evaluated from the ground
motion data. A frequency spacing of 1 Hz was used to
compare the site response curves for a generalized
assessment as explained in Fig. 14b. The simulations
of accelerograms show that the geotechnically derived
site response yields average acceleration spectra
compared to those simulated using the site response
calculated from the earthquake data (Fig. 14b),
although they are lower compared to those estimated
from the data in the higher frequency band ([5 Hz).
The difference might be attributed to the underesti-
mation of high frequency site amplifications from non-
linear effects (e.g., PARK and HASHASH 2004).
The present study adheres to the NEHRP site
classification scheme. Nevertheless, we appraise the
observed average maximum site amplifications vis-à-
vis predominant frequency and V30 S . MIDORIKAWA
(1987) observed that the mean amplification factors
for geological units of Holocene origin are around 3
in the frequency range of 0.4–5 Hz. The relation
between the site amplification factors and V30 S given
by the author yields an amplification factor equal to
2.0–2.8 for site class D in the region, which is
comparable to the mean site amplification factors
obtained by three-point frequency averaging of site
response estimated by the geotechnical modeling
pertinent to site class D. NEHRP site class F is
qualified with the soils vulnerable to potential failure
or collapse under seismic loading such as liquefiable
soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, and collapsible
weakly cemented soils.

Figure 14
a Site amplification factor versus frequency evaluated from the earthquake data at COTTON station (in lighter shade curves) and that
estimated through 1D geotechnical analysis (in bold curve) at a borehole site in the proximity of the seismic station, and b the simulated
spectral accelerations using site response curves derived from geotechnical data depicted in the bold curve and from the earthquake data
depicted in the lighter shade at the station (after NATH et al., 2009)
1664 S. K. Nath, K. K. S. Thingbaijam
Figure 15
a The observed predominant frequency from the ground motion
data at the monitoring station (square box) with respect to that
derived from the ambient noise survey (circle) and geotechnical
modeling (asterisk) in the vicinity of the station. b The corre-
sponding site amplification factor estimated from ground motion
data at each seismic station with respect to that estimated at an
adjacent borehole from 1D geotechnical modeling
Figure 15a shows that the geotechnical modeling,
earthquake ground motion, and ambient noise data
analyses provide efficacy for the 30-m-depth soil
column around the predominant frequency of 2 Hz.
In case of IITG, the area underlies a shallow
basement where the pertinent soil condition comes
under site class F. As observed in Fig. 15b, maximum
site amplifications inversely correlate with predom-
inant frequencies, i.e., higher amplifications at the
lower predominant frequencies and vice versa. A
rather high site amplification factor of 7.5 on average
is seen at IRRIG (with a predominant frequency of
about 2.0 Hz at a shallow basement depth and
relatively higher ground topography going up to
130 m), which could be indicative of a basin edge
effect. Although similar predominant frequency val-
ues are observed at COTTON (site class E) and
AMTRON (site class D), the locations are far from
edges of the basin. Overall, the study region consists
of small valley interplays causing irregular micro-
basin features in the parent Brahmaputra basin. In this
Pure Appl. Geophys.
respect, the surficial geometry along with varying
predominant frequency may further subdivide the
broad NEHRP site classification implementation.
Indeed, a number of recent studies demonstrated that
in case of diverse geological and geotechnical
contexts, the site effects may not always be accu-
rately represented by a simple index, such as V30 S
(e.g., PARK and HASHASH 2004; SEMBLAT et al., 2002;
BAKIR et al., 2002; HUSKER et al., 2006). The site
effects may be further resolved in view of the
bedrock topography and the basin complexities by
probable 2D/3D basin modeling. The geometric
parameters such as basement depth vis-à-vis predom-
inant frequency and distance from the basin edge can
be envisaged to enforce the basin effects in improv-
ing the present site classifications (e.g., FIELD, 2000;
RAPTAKIS et al. 2005).
6. Conclusions
The site conditions have significant influence on
the overall seismic hazard potential. Even in the
regions characterized by small basins, the disparities
of seismic site conditions across the region could be
significant. This entails the need to integrate various
data for understanding the basin attributes such as
basin geometry and depth. The present study
appraised the seismic site conditions of Guwahati City
in terms of predominant frequency and shear wave
velocity. The employed geophysical and geotechnical
data include ambient noise measurements, earthquake
recordings, and geotechnical borehole (SPT N value)
data. Along with the delineation of the basement
topography based on vertical electrical-resistivity
sounding and selected drilled boreholes, region-spe-
cific relationships between predominant frequency,
shear wave velocity, and basement depth could be
formulated. The basement depths are mostly shallow
(about 50–100 m deep) across the study region,
although in the northwestern and the western parts, the
basement depths go as high as 550 m. The predomi-
nant frequency in most parts of the inhabited areas of
the city is in the range of 0.5–3.5 Hz. The variation of
predominant frequency is seen to match the geomor-
phological signatures in the study region with
different frequency responses across the geologically
Vol. 168, (2011) Assessment of Seismic Site Conditions
complex province. Owing to the predominant fre-
quency distribution, moderate- and high-rise buildings
in the terrain are indicated as seismically vulnerable.
The soil liquefaction potential assessment in the city
shows widespread susceptibility.
A site classification map of the city based on
NEHRP provisions has been prepared, identifying the
zones of site classes F, E, D, CD, and generic rock in
the region. The assessment of site response in the city
has been accomplished by means of geotechnical
modeling as well as single station standard spectral
ratio analysis of earthquake recordings. Further res-
olution in the basin configuration can be ascertained
by means of micro-gravity and other borehole geo-
physical tools. The distribution of seismic site
conditions and consequently building vulnerability
are largely influenced by basin response defined by
impedance contrast and the bedrock topography.
Acknowledgments
The critical review and constructive suggestions of
Dr. Fabian Bonilla and the other anonymous reviewer
greatly helped in improving the manuscript with
enhanced scientific exposition. The Guwahati Seis-
mic Hazard Microzonation Consortium of expert
groups under the aegis of the Department of Science
& Technology, Government of India (DST/Exp
Group/Guwahati microzonation/2002), facilitated
the availability of the data used for the comprehen-
sive analyses in this study. We are also grateful to
Prof. Marco Mucciarelli for giving a critical and
thoughtful reading of the preliminary version of this
paper and suggesting important changes.
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