Ain Shams University

October 27,2023

LAB3

Submitted by Introduction to Autotronics

 Abdelrahman Mohamed Hagag 20P7509
Contents
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 5
TIRE STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................................... 6
Tread.............................................................................................................................................. 6
Belts and Carcass...................................................................................................................... 7
Undertread.................................................................................................................................. 7
Belt Edge Cushion .................................................................................................................... 7
Sidewall ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Inner Liner .................................................................................................................................. 8
Rim Cushion ............................................................................................................................... 8
Beads ............................................................................................................................................. 9
TIRE MANUFACTURING ............................................................................................................. 9
Tire Components and Materials ........................................................................................ 9
Mixing and Compounding ................................................................................................. 10
Bead Construction ................................................................................................................ 10
Inner Liner Application ...................................................................................................... 10
Tire Building............................................................................................................................ 11
Vulcanization........................................................................................................................... 11
Inspection and Quality Control ....................................................................................... 11
Testing and Performance Validation ............................................................................. 11
TIRE DESIGNATION .................................................................................................................. 12
Type of Tire.............................................................................................................................. 12
Tire Width ................................................................................................................................ 13
Aspect Ratio............................................................................................................................. 13
Construction Type ................................................................................................................ 13
Rim Diameter .......................................................................................................................... 13
Load Index................................................................................................................................ 13
Speed Rating............................................................................................................................ 14

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SUMMER TIRES .......................................................................................................................... 15
Tread Design ........................................................................................................................... 15
Rubber Compound................................................................................................................ 15
Enhanced Cornering and Handling ............................................................................... 16
Reduced Tread Wear............................................................................................................ 16
Limited Wet Weather Performance ............................................................................... 16
Ideal for Sporty Drivers ...................................................................................................... 16
Consideration for Tire Storage ........................................................................................ 16
WINTER TIRES ............................................................................................................................ 17
MUD AND SNOW TIRES .......................................................................................................... 17
RUN FLAT TIRES ........................................................................................................................ 18
Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tires (SSR) ........................................................................... 18
Zero Pressure Run-Flat Tires (ZP or ZPS)................................................................... 19
Support Ring System Run-Flat Tires ............................................................................. 19
Self-Sealing Run-Flat Tires ................................................................................................ 20
Extended Mobility Tires (EMT)....................................................................................... 21
TIRE WEAR PATTERNS AND CAUSES ............................................................................... 21
Center Wear ............................................................................................................................. 21
Shoulder Wear ........................................................................................................................ 21
Feathering ................................................................................................................................ 22
Cupping Wear ......................................................................................................................... 22
Edge Wear ................................................................................................................................ 22
Patchy Wear ............................................................................................................................. 22
TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEM .......................................................................... 24
How TPMS Work.................................................................................................................... 24
Importance of Proper Tire Pressure ............................................................................. 24
Types of TPMS ........................................................................................................................ 24
Bene its of TPMS ................................................................................................................... 25

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 TPMS Maintenance ............................................................................................................... 25

Figures
FIGURE 1 - TIRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS .............................................................................................................................5
FIGURE 2 - TIRE STRUCTURE ..................................................................................................................................................6
FIGURE 3 - BUTYL RUBBER ....................................................................................................................................................8
FIGURE 4 - RIM CUSHION .....................................................................................................................................................8
FIGURE 5 - TIRE MATERIALS .................................................................................................................................................10
FIGURE 6 - TIRE DESIGNATION .............................................................................................................................................12
FIGURE 7 - LOAD INDEX ......................................................................................................................................................14
FIGURE 8 - SPEED RATING ................................................................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 9 - SUMMER TIRES .................................................................................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 10 - WINTER TIRE ................................................................................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 11 - MUD AND SNOW TIRES .....................................................................................................................................18
FIGURE 12 - SELF-SUPPORTING RUN-FLAT TIRES ....................................................................................................................19
FIGURE 13 - SUPPORT RING SYSTEM RUN-FLAT TIRES .............................................................................................................20
FIGURE 14 - SELF-SEALING RUN-FLAT TIRES ............................................................................................................................20
FIGURE 15 - TIRE WEAR .....................................................................................................................................................23
FIGURE 16 - TPMS .......................................................................................................................................................... 25

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INTRODUCTION

In the world of automobiles, tires play a crucial role in ensuring a smooth

and safe ride. Understanding tire basics is essential for every driver. In this lab
report, we will explore various aspects related to tires, starting with their basic
structure and the complex process of manufacturing as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - tire manufacturing process

By delving into tire designation, we will unravel the codes and markings that
guide us in choosing the right tire for speci ic needs. Whether it's the warm days
of summer, the icy roads of winter, or the challenging roads, we will explore
specialized tires designed to tackle different weather conditions. Additionally,
we will discuss run- lat tires, which offer added safety, and examine common
tire wear patterns and their causes. Lastly, we will shed light on the Tire
Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS), a modern technology ensuring our tires
are always in optimal condition.
TIRE STRUCTURE

Tires are the heroes of the road, and their complex structure is more than
meets the eye. Let's explore the various layers that make up a tire and the vital
roles they play.

Figure 2 - tire structure

Tread
The tread is like the tire's outer armor, making direct contact with the
road surface. It's crafted from a special rubber or rubber/composite compound,
carefully designed for the perfect balance between traction and longevity. The
tread pattern also ensures a safe grip on the road, ef icient water dispersal, and
excellent performance in various conditions. So, when you drive in the rain or
on a sunny day, you can thank the tread for keeping you safe and on track.

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Belts and Carcass
Beneath the tread lies the heart of the tire, known as the Carcass. It's
reinforced with belts, which are like layers of strength. These belts are made of
rubber, closely spaced steel cords, and more rubber. They provide durability,
resilience, and lexibility. In radial tires, the steel cords run radially, while in bias
tires, they run at opposing angles. These belts give your tire the ability to
withstand pressure and bumps while remaining agile on the road.

Undertread
A rubber layer provided for use in retreading the tire and which provides
adhesion of tread to the tire carcass. It's an extra layer of heat-resistant rubber
that enhances high-speed durability and fuel economy. Additionally, it ensures
the tread stays irmly attached to the tire's carcass, ensuring a long-lasting and
ef icient ride.

Belt Edge Cushion

Picture a belt edge cushion as a safety buffer. It's about 1-inch wide bands
that cover the inner and outer edges of the steel belts. This cushion absorbs the
stress generated by the belts, preventing the separation of the belt edges and
the tread. So, it's a guard for your tire's structure, especially during sharp turns
and sudden stops.

Sidewall
The sidewall of a tire holds everything together. Situated between the
tire's shoulder and bead, it does more than just look good. The sidewall
maintains the tire's shape, prevents air from escaping, and offers lexibility
during your drive. Plus, it's the part of the tire where you can ind tire
designation like the tire's size, structure, tread pattern, manufacturer, and
brand name.

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Inner Liner
Inside your tire, the inner liner ensures that the air you pump in stays
where it should be. It's made of special rubber, like butyl as shown in Figure 3
or synthetic rubber, designed to keep air from gradually diffusing through the
tire's structure. This means you can enjoy a consistent and safe driving
experience.

Figure 3 - butyl rubber

Rim Cushion
When your tires bear heavy loads or encounter extreme temperatures,
the rim cushion is your tire's armor. It's a heat-resistant compound that protects
your tire from the demands of the road, ensuring a long and reliable life.

Figure 4 - Rim Cushion

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Beads
The bead is like the foundation for the carcass and the tire's anchor to the
wheel. It's made of high-tensile-strength steel wire enclosed in a rubber
compound. It's a combination of bead wire, a core, rubber, and a lipper that
locks the tire securely onto the wheel rim. This tight seal ensures your tubeless
tire holds air without any leaks.
So, as you hit the road, remember that your tires are not just round pieces of
rubber but complex engineering marvels designed to keep you safe,
comfortable, and moving forward.

TIRE MANUFACTURING

Tire manufacturing is a highly complex process that involves a series of

precise steps and cutting-edge technologies. Each tire is a masterpiece of
engineering, carefully designed to meet speci ic performance requirements.
Let's delve into the fascinating world of tire manufacturing, exploring its key
stages and the materials that make up these remarkable products.

Tire Components and Materials

Tire manufacturing starts with the selection of materials. The key
components of a tire include rubber compounds, textile cord plies, steel belts,
and fabric reinforcements. Rubber compounds are crucial for the tread,
sidewall, and inner liner, with different formulations used to meet the tire's
intended purpose. Textile cord plies, often made of materials like polyester or
rayon, provide strength and lexibility, while steel belts enhance rigidity and
longevity.

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 Figure 5 - tire materials

Mixing and Compounding

In the mixing and compounding stage, various types of rubber
compounds are prepared. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber, and specialty
additives are carefully mixed to create the desired tire properties, including
tread grip, durability, and heat resistance. The resulting compounds are then
extruded into sheets and adjusted to speci ic thicknesses.

Bead Construction
The tire's foundation lies in the beads, which are constructed from
bundles of high-tensile-strength steel wires encased in rubber. These beads
ensure the tire irmly grips the wheel rim, providing stability and maintaining
airtight integrity.

Inner Liner Application

An essential step in tire manufacturing is the application of the inner liner,
which is an extruded halo butyl rubber sheet. This layer serves as airtight
insurance, sealing the tire and preventing gradual air loss. The inner liner is
crucial for maintaining proper tire pressure.

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Tire Building
Tire building is a detailed process that assembles all the components. It
starts with the inner liner and bead assembly, followed by the carcass plies,
belts, and sidewalls. Each layer is precisely positioned to achieve the tire's
desired structure and characteristics.

Vulcanization
Vulcanization is a critical step where the green tire, as it's known at this
stage, is subjected to heat and pressure in a curing mold. This process
chemically bonds the rubber components and strengthens the tire's structure.
The precise temperature and pressure conditions in the curing process are
crucial for achieving the desired tire performance.

Inspection and Quality Control

Before a tire leaves the manufacturing facility, it undergoes accurate
inspection and quality control. This includes checks for uniformity, balance, and
visual defects. Any imperfections are addressed to ensure that only top-quality
tires reach the market.

Testing and Performance Validation

Tire manufacturers conduct extensive testing to verify performance
characteristics, including grip, tread wear, and noise levels. These tests help
guarantee that the tires will meet safety and performance standards when they
hit the road.

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TIRE DESIGNATION

Figure 6 - tire designation

Tire size designation as in igure 6 consists of a series of alphanumeric

characters that convey essential information about the tire's physical
dimensions and construction. It's crucial to understand each part to make an
informed choice for your vehicle.

Type of Tire
The irst character, often a letter, indicates the type of vehicle for which
the tire is intended. For example, "P" stands for passenger vehicles, while "LT"
signi ies light truck tires, and "ST" is used for special trailer tires.

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Tire Width
The three-digit number immediately following the type character
represents the tire's width in millimeters. For instance, in the designation
P225/70R16, "225" denotes a tire width of 225 millimeters.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is expressed as a two-digit number and represents the
tire's height as a percentage of its width. In our example, "70" indicates that the
tire's height is 70% of its width. A higher aspect ratio, such as 75, means a taller
sidewall, which can provide a smoother ride and better shock absorption.

Construction Type
The "R" in the designation indicates radial construction, which is the most
common type of tire construction today. Other construction types include "B"
for bias-ply and "D" for diagonal.

Rim Diameter
The last number in the designation, such as "16," speci ies the diameter
of the wheel in inches that the tire is designed to it. It's essential to ensure that
this size matches your vehicle's wheel size for proper it and performance.

Load Index
The load index is a numerical value (e.g., 91) that indicates the tire's
maximum weight-carrying capacity. Load index values are found on load index
charts and correlate with speci ic loads in pounds or kilograms. Selecting a
tire with the appropriate load index ensures that it can safely support your
vehicle's weight and load requirements.

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 Figure 7 - load index

Speed Rating
The speed rating, usually represented by a letter like "H" or "V,"
designates the maximum speed at which the tire can operate safely. Speed
ratings range from "Q" (lowest) to "Y" (highest) as in igure 8. It's important to
match the tire's speed rating with your vehicle's top speed capabilities to
ensure safe handling and performance.

Figure 8 - speed rating

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SUMMER TIRES

Summer tires, often referred to as "high-performance tires," are a

specialized category of tires designed to excel in warm weather and dry road
conditions. These tires are engineered with speci ic features and compounds to
provide outstanding traction, cornering stability, and handling during the hot
summer months.

Tread Design
Summer tires are distinguished by their unique tread patterns as in
igure 9, which are tailored for dry and warm road surfaces. The tread features
large, continuous ribbed blocks and minimal siping (small grooves). This design
maximizes the contact area with the road, enhancing grip and responsiveness.

Figure 9 - summer tires

Rubber Compound
One of the key features of summer tires is the rubber compound used in
their construction. This compound is formulated to remain pliable and maintain
excellent grip even at high temperatures. It offers superior traction on hot
pavement, contributing to enhanced handling and cornering capabilities.

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Enhanced Cornering and Handling
Summer tires are engineered to provide exceptional cornering and
handling capabilities. Their stiffer sidewalls and optimized tread patterns work
together to offer precise steering response, making them ideal for spirited
driving and tackling winding roads.

Reduced Tread Wear

While summer tires are designed for high-performance driving, they may
exhibit faster tread wear compared to all-season or winter tires. This is a trade-
off for their enhanced grip and handling. Regular monitoring of tire wear and
maintenance is essential to ensure longevity.

Limited Wet Weather Performance

It's important to note that summer tires are not suitable for cold or wet
conditions. When temperatures drop, and the road surface becomes wet or
slippery, their performance diminishes signi icantly. Thus, it's advisable to
switch to all-season or winter tires when the seasons change.

Ideal for Sporty Drivers

Summer tires are the preferred choice for automotive enthusiasts, sports
car owners, and drivers seeking the peak in performance and responsiveness
during the warm months. Their capabilities shine on clear, dry roads, providing
an exhilarating driving experience.

Consideration for Tire Storage

If you choose to use summer tires, it's essential to store your all-season
or winter tires properly during the off-season to ensure they remain in good
condition and are ready for use when needed.

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WINTER TIRES

Winter tires are like your car's best friends when it's cold or snowy
outside. They have special rubber that stays lexible even when it's freezing.
This helps them grip the road better in icy and snowy conditions. They also have
lots of tiny cuts called sipes on their tread, which bite into the snow and ice. So,
if you want to stay safe and keep moving during wintertime, winter tires are the
way to go.

Figure 10 - winter tire

MUD AND SNOW TIRES

Mud and snow tires are the adventurers of the tire world. They are great
for taking on rough and slippery roads. These tires have a chunky tread pattern
with big spaces between the blocks, which helps them grab onto the ground,
whether it's muddy, slushy, or even on rocky terrain. They're perfect for trucks
and SUVs that like to explore off the beaten path.

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 Figure 11 - Mud and snow tires

RUN FLAT TIRES

Run- lat tires are like superheroes for your car. If you get a lat tire, they
let you keep driving for a short distance, usually at a slower speed. These tires
have strong sidewalls that support your car's weight even when there's no air
inside. They can be a real lifesaver, especially if you don't want to stop in the
middle of nowhere because of a lat tire. Just remember, they may need special
wheels and can't be repaired if damaged.

Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tires (SSR)

Self-supporting run- lat tires, often labeled as SSR, are engineered with
reinforced sidewalls that allow them to bear the weight of the vehicle even
when the tire loses air pressure due to a puncture or lat tire. In such situations,
SSR tires enable you to continue driving for a limited distance, typically around
50 miles at a reduced speed, offering a convenient solution for avoiding
unplanned stops. However, it's worth noting that SSR tires can be stiffer than

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standard tires, potentially impacting ride comfort, and they may come at a
higher price point.

Figure 12 - Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tires

Zero Pressure Run-Flat Tires (ZP or ZPS)

Zero pressure run- lat tires, designated as ZP or ZPS, feature advanced
sidewall reinforcement and a unique bead design that allows them to maintain
their structural integrity even with no air pressure. These tires offer a practical
solution in the event of a puncture, enabling you to drive for a limited distance,
usually up to 50 miles, at reduced speeds. While ZP run- lat tires provide
enhanced safety and convenience, they are often designed for speci ic vehicle
models, not universally compatible, and may come at a premium price.
Additionally, they might slightly affect ride comfort.

Support Ring System Run-Flat Tires

Support ring system run- lat tires incorporate a specialized design with
an internal support ring or insert that upholds the weight of the vehicle when
the tire loses air pressure. This innovative technology offers run- lat capabilities
without solely relying on reinforced sidewalls, which can result in a potentially
more comfortable ride compared to other run- lat types. However, it's essential
to be aware that support ring system run- lat tires may require speci ic wheels
and can be more complex to install. They are less commonly found than other
run- lat varieties.

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 Figure 13 - Support Ring System Run-Flat Tires

Self-Sealing Run-Flat Tires

Self-sealing run- lat tires feature an inner lining with sealant properties
that can effectively seal small punctures as they occur. In the presence of nails
or sharp objects, this built-in sealant can prevent air loss, allowing the tire to
maintain its shape and function normally. These tires provide continuous run-
lat capabilities, often without the driver even realizing the tire was punctured.
While effective for small punctures, self-sealing run- lat tires may not provide
run- lat capabilities for larger or more signi icant tire damage, necessitating
caution in severe situations.

Figure 14 - Self-sealing run- lat tires

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Extended Mobility Tires (EMT)
Extended Mobility Tires, commonly known as EMT, are engineered with
reinforced sidewalls and an internal structure that ensures they can uphold the
vehicle's weight even with no air pressure, delivering run- lat capabilities. EMT
tires allow you to drive for a limited distance after a lat tire, typically up to 50
miles, providing a safe and convenient solution for punctures. However, EMT
tires tend to be more expensive than traditional tires and may come with
speci ic maintenance and repair requirements.

TIRE WEAR PATTERNS AND CAUSES

Tire wear is like a message from your car's tires, telling you how they are
coping with the road and what might need attention. The way a tire wears down
can reveal valuable insights about your vehicle's alignment, suspension, and
driving habits. Let's explore common tire wear patterns and their underlying
causes:

Center Wear
When tires exhibit excessive wear in the center of the tread, it's often a
sign of overin lation. Overin lated tires have a smaller contact patch with the
road, leading to increased pressure on the center of the tire. This can cause
premature wear in this area, reducing traction and ride comfort. Proper tire
pressure maintenance is key to avoiding center wear.

Shoulder Wear
Conversely, when the outer edges of the tire tread show excessive wear,
it's a sign of underin lation. Underin lated tires have a larger contact patch at
the edges, causing the shoulders to wear faster than the center. This can lead to

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reduced stability and handling. Regularly checking and maintaining proper tire
pressure can help prevent shoulder wear.

Feathering
Feathering wear patterns are characterized by tread blocks that appear
rounded on one side and sharp on the other. This is often due to misalignment
issues, where the tires are not pointed in the same direction. Improper
alignment can cause uneven wear, reduce fuel ef iciency, and impact handling.
Aligning your vehicle's wheels as recommended can mitigate feathering wear.

Cupping Wear
Cupping or scalloped wear patterns create an uneven, wavy surface on
the tire tread. This type of wear is typically associated with suspension
problems or worn-out shock absorbers. Inconsistent tire-to-road contact
caused by a bumpy ride can lead to cupping wear. Resolving suspension issues
and maintaining your vehicle's suspension system can prevent cupping wear.

Edge Wear
Where the outer edges of the tire tread wear faster, can result from
aggressive driving habits. Frequent sharp turns, rapid acceleration, and hard
braking can put excessive stress on the tire edges. Adopting smoother driving
practices can help minimize edge wear.

Patchy Wear
If you notice uneven wear patterns across your tires, it could be a sign of
neglecting tire rotation. Different positions on the vehicle can lead to various
wear rates due to varying weight distribution and wheel drive. Regular tire
rotation, as recommended by the manufacturer, can ensure even wear and
extend tire life.

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Understanding these tire wear patterns and their causes is like deciphering
your tires' language. By paying attention to these signs and addressing their
underlying issues, you can maximize the lifespan of your tires, improve safety,
and enhance your vehicle's performance. Regular tire maintenance and
alignment checks are essential for preventing premature tire wear and ensuring
a smooth and comfortable ride.

Figure 15 - tire wear

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TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEM

Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems, or TPMS, are modern vehicle safety

features designed to keep an eye on your tire's air pressure and alert you when
it falls below the recommended level. TPMS is a crucial technology for
maintaining tire health and road safety. Let's explore the key aspects of TPMS:

How TPMS Work

TPMS relies on sensors installed in each tire (direct TPMS) or on the
vehicle's anti-lock braking system (indirect TPMS). These sensors continuously
monitor tire pressure. When pressure drops below a certain threshold, TPMS
alerts the driver through a warning light on the dashboard. This timely
noti ication allows for prompt action to address low tire pressure.

Importance of Proper Tire Pressure

Maintaining the correct tire pressure is vital for various reasons.
Adequate tire pressure ensures optimal traction, stability, and handling,
reducing the risk of accidents. It also contributes to better fuel ef iciency, as
underin lated tires can increase fuel consumption. TPMS assists drivers in
maintaining the ideal tire pressure, enhancing safety and vehicle performance.

Types of TPMS
Direct TPMS: This system uses sensors inside each tire to monitor air
pressure and temperature. It provides precise and real-time data for each tire.
When a tire's pressure falls below the recommended level, it triggers a warning
light on the dashboard.
Indirect TPMS: Indirect TPMS relies on the vehicle's anti-lock braking
system to detect variations in tire rotation speed. A tire with low pressure
rotates at a different speed compared to properly in lated tires. The system
detects this difference and alerts the driver. Indirect TPMS is less accurate than
direct TPMS but still provides valuable warnings.

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Benefits of TPMS
TPMS offers several advantages. It enhances road safety by notifying
drivers of low tire pressure before it leads to dangerous situations. It reduces
the risk of blowouts, especially at high speeds. Moreover, maintaining proper
tire pressure can extend tire life and improve fuel ef iciency, potentially leading
to cost savings in the long run.

TPMS Maintenance
Regularly checking and maintaining TPMS sensors is essential for
ensuring their accuracy. Over time, the sensor batteries may need replacement.
Additionally, when installing new tires or performing tire rotations, it's crucial
to reprogram or recalibrate the TPMS to ensure it provides correct readings.

Figure 16 - TPMS

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