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Is a battery temperature sensor necessary?

There are many types of battery chargers on the market: rechargeable

alkaline battery chargers, nickel-metal hydride battery chargers, and

nickel-cadmium battery chargers. When buying a battery charger, I

suggest you buy a multi-function battery charger which can reduce some

expenses.

Here is a circuit schematic diagram of the battery charger probe that can

be tested by using the probe to prevent battery damage, whether the

charger starts charging or improperly connected.

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This battery charger probe prevents damage to the battery or allows you

to test it yourself, whether the charger starts charging or improperly

connected. By using the probe, the cable clamp is connected to the

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battery positive level for the first time, then the test board touches the

negative pole of the battery.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Battery temperature sensors play an important role in battery

management systems by providing temperature monitoring and

protection. The measurement of cell, module, and pack temperatures

allows the system to optimize charging conditions, prevent damage from

overheating, and estimate battery capacity.

This article explores the impacts of temperature on battery performance

and lifetime, the consequences of exceeding safe temperature limits, how

and where temperature sensors are implemented, and alternatives when

temperature sensing may not be required.

Effects of Temperature on Batteries

Battery cell chemistry determines optimal temperature ranges. In general,

temperature extremes degrade batteries through the following effects:

High Temperatures

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 Accelerated ageing and shorter cycle lifetimes

 Loss of active materials and internal structural changes

 Increased self-discharge rates

 Degradation of internal resistance and power capability

 Thermal runaway risk in some lithium-ion types

Low Temperatures

 Temporary loss of capacity and lower discharge rates

 Increased internal resistance causes voltage drop

 Reduced current and power discharge ability

 Slower charging rates may be required

 Risk of lithium plating in lithium-ion cells

 Higher risk of metal corrosion in some chemistries

Keep batteries within a safe operating range improves performance,

lifetime, and safety. Temperature monitoring provides feedback to

manage these effects.

Consequences of Exceeding Temperature Limits

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battery

charge indicator

Without temperature monitoring and control, the following failure modes

can occur when battery temperatures go out of safe limits:

High Temperature Effects

 Pouch cell swelling leading to fire/explosion

 Internal short circuits due to separator damage

 Venting of electrolytes

 Thermal runaway causing cascading cell failures

Low Temperature Impacts

 Permanent capacity loss or premature failure

 Internal battery damage from lithium plating

 Voltage clipping and inability to deliver rated power

These potential risks demonstrate the need for temperature sensing as

part of a battery management system.

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Implementing Battery Temperature Sensors

To monitor temperature, sensor placement is important:

Cell Surface Mounting

Attaching sensors directly to cell surfaces provides most accurate

measurements but increases pack complexity. Higher quantity of sensors

required. Useful for validating cell models.

Module/Pack Mounting

Sensor mounted externally on module or pack enclosure is simpler.

Provides general temperature for control but may not detect localized hot

spots.

Within Pack

Sensors inserted internally between cells provide intermediate monitoring

without direct cell contact. Compromise between complexity and localized

readings.

Air Intake/Outflow

Measuring inlet cooling air and outlet heat exhaust temperatures provides

indirect pack temperature estimates for basic control. Simplest approach.

Thermal Imaging

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Infrared cameras used periodically provide non-contact temperature map

of pack to identify hotspots not apparent from discrete sensors.

In most cases, a combination of pack surface sensors and selective

internal placement provides sufficient temperature monitoring for control

and protection.

Temperature Sensor Selection

A variety of sensor options exist for battery temperature monitoring:

 Thermistors – Inexpensive, accurate. Linear and nonlinear types

available.

 RTDs – Very linear over wide temperature range. Accurate and

precise but higher cost.

 Thermocouples – Low cost sensors. Require compensation circuitry.

 IC Temperature Sensors – On-chip amplification, linearization, and

output. Application specific variants.

 Infrared Sensors – Non-contact temperature measurement. Lower

accuracy and higher cost than thermistors/RTDs.

 Fiber Optic Sensors – Electrically passive for high voltage isolation.

Expensive.

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Robustness, cost, accuracy, and measurement range considerations will

determine optimal sensor selection for the battery application and

environment.

Temperature Sensor Circuit Design

Proper circuit design improves measurement accuracy and noise

rejection:

 Linearization – Adding resistive or digital linearization for sensors

like thermistors improves temperature correlation.

 Amplification – Sensor signals require buffering and amplification

for noise immunity and signal conditioning.

 Filtering – Low pass RC filters reduce noise pickup in long sensor

leads in electromagnetically noisy environments.

 Isolation – Fiber optic transmitters or galvanic isolators prevent

false ground errors.

 Compensation – Correct for errors like thermal junction effects in

thermocouples.

 Calibration – Normalize each sensor output at defined

temperatures to maximize absolute accuracy.

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Careful circuit design ensures the temperature sensor subsystem provides

the battery management system with precision temperature data across

the operating range.

Alternatives to Temperature Sensors

While temperature sensors are generally recommended, some

alternatives exist for low cost or simpler battery packs:

Model Estimation

Use a thermal model of the battery to estimate temperature based on

charge/discharge current, voltage response, and ambient temperature.

Lower cost but less accurate.

Current Limiting

Conservatively derate maximum current to prevent heating rather than

directly sensing temperature rise. Simple but reduces available capacity.

Periodic IR Scanning

Use a handheld thermal camera to periodically scan pack and check for

hot spots instead of continuous monitoring. Only detects issues as they

arise.

Exterior Thermal Feedback

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Rely on skin temperature sensation, temperature labels, or surface

mounted thermochromics to indicate unsafe externals temperatures

manually. Provides warning but no control.

While workable for very basic systems, the lack of reliable temperature

feedback with these alternatives prevents optimization and reduces safety

margins compared to proper thermal sensing and control.

Advanced Temperature Monitoring

More advanced battery systems maximize safety and performance using

improved thermal monitoring:

 Multiple internal distributed sensors provide temperature maps to

the BMS. Detects local hotspots.

 Fiber optic distributed sensing embeds thousands of measuring

points within modules to improve resolution.

 Thermal runaway detection monitors rate of temperature increase

as an early warning.

 Cell surface insulators with embedded thermistors improve

response time and accuracy.

 Actively cooled and heated packs maintain uniform stable

temperature regardless of conditions.

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With sufficient temperature data, battery thermal models can be further

refined to simulate thermal behaviors for different use cases and optimize

thermal management strategies.

Thermal Management Integration

Incorporating temperature data into thermal management enables:

 Reducing charge rate when temperature nears limit to avoid

overheating rather than simple fixed current charging.

 Proactively cooling the pack when approaching upper limits well

before reaching critical temperatures.

 Preventing operation in extremely cold environments by

temperature dependent output derating or pack heating.

 Optimizing cooling system controls based on inlet air and internal

temperatures.

 Estimating impedances and available capacity based on

temperature.

 Triggering safe shutdown and isolation when dangerous

temperatures are detected.

Integrating temperature monitoring as part of the overall thermal

management and battery management systems is key to maintaining safe,

efficient, and optimal battery operation.

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Summary

 Battery temperature heavily impacts performance, lifetime, and

safety parameters. Exceeding limits degrades batteries.

 Direct temperature monitoring allows optimizing operation as well

as preventing failures from overheating or freezing.

 Sensor selection, placement, and circuit design ensure robust and

noise-free measurements for the battery management system.

 Alternatives exist for simple batteries but lack protections of active

sensing and control. Advanced techniques provide greater

resolution.

 Temperature feedback coupled with thermal management

strategies maximizes battery efficiency, utilization, and safety.

FAQ

How many temperature sensors are needed in battery pack?

Depends on pack size but a minimum of 3-5 sensors placed at end/middle

of pack helps detect basic thermal gradients for control and protection.

Larger packs may use 10 or more sensors distributed throughout the

modules.

What temperature range do Li-Ion batteries operate in?

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Charge: 0°C to 45°C, Discharge: -20°C to 60°C. Wider operating range

possible with thermal controls. Lower and upper cutoff limits are used for

protection.

What communications bus is used for battery temperature sensors?

A controller area network bus (CAN Bus) is typical for connecting multiple

sensors over a common serial data bus. Other options include SPI,

ISO-BUS, and I2C. Wireless sensors are also an emerging option.

How often should battery temperature be monitored?

Continuous monitoring provides best results for optimizing charging and

prevent over-temperature conditions. For simple packs, occasional

sampling may suffice but lacks robust protections.

Why are multiple temperature sensors needed in large battery packs?

A single external measurement cannot detect internal hot spots.

Distributed sensors allow finding cells with higher localized heating to

properly control charge rates and cooling across large packs.

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