materials
Article
Experimental Investigation of Engine Valve Train Friction
Considering Effects of Operating Conditions and WPC
Surface Treatment
Muhammad Usman Bhutta 1, * , Muhammad Huzaifa Najeeb 1 , Muhammad Usman Abdullah 1 ,
Samiur Rahman Shah 1 , Muhammad Khurram 2 , Riaz Ahmad Mufti 1 , Kiyotaka Ogawa 3 , Jawad Aslam 1 ,
Rehan Zahid 1 , Mian Ashfaq Ali 1 and Muazzam Arshad 4
Citation: Bhutta, M.U.; Najeeb, M.H.;
Abdullah, M.U.; Shah, S.R.; Khurram,
M.; Mufti, R.A.; Ogawa, K.; Aslam, J.;
Zahid, R.; Ali, M.A.; et al.
Experimental Investigation of Engine
Valve Train Friction Considering
Effects of Operating Conditions and
WPC Surface Treatment. Materials
2023, 16, 3431. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma16093431
Academic Editor: Andrzej Dzierwa
Received: 3 November 2022
Revised: 22 November 2022
Accepted: 15 December 2022
Published: 28 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 3431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093431
1 School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences &
Technology (NUST), Campus H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Technology (NUTECH), Main IJP Road,
Sector I-12, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
3 Fuji Manufacturing Co., Ltd., 5-2-24 Matsue Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 132-0025, Japan
4 Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Chemical, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar 44000, Pakistan
* Correspondence: usmanbhutta@smme.nust.edu.pk; Tel.: +92-51-9085-6044
Abstract: Reduction in friction ensures fuel economy, control on emissions and durability of compo-
nents in internal combustion engines. A modern gasoline internal combustion engine was instru-
mented to determine the friction values at the cam–roller interface considering the effects of surface
treatment and engine operating state. A series of tests under different operating speeds and lubricant
inlet temperatures were undertaken using both an original surface roller and a Wonder Process
Craft (WPC) surface-treated engine roller. The results clearly revealed a substantial reduction in
friction magnitude for the WPC surface-treated engine roller in comparison to the original roller while
operating under similar conditions, indicating their strong potential for employment in engines. An
increase in friction with the rise in temperature was also observed for both types of rollers, whereas
increased lubricant entraining velocity due to higher operating speed had the opposite impact. A
considerable reduction in frictional drive torque ranging from 8% to 28% was observed by employing
the WPC-treated roller in comparison to original/untreated roller at various operating conditions,
which signifies the strong potential for employment of WPC surface treatment in the roller/follower
valve train engines.
Keywords: engine valve train; cam–roller interface; friction; WPC; camshaft speed; operating temperature
1. Introduction
There is constant pressure on the automotive industry to improve the fuel economy
and to control the emissions of internal combustion engines while ensuring reliability of
tribological components in engines. Reduction in friction is the best way to achieve these
goals. Advanced lubricant formulations and employment of engineered surfaces are being
pursued relentlessly in the automotive sector to reduce the engine friction and wear. The
cam–follower pair in an engine valve train is often exposed to harsh operating conditions
in the form of starved lubricity, high contact loadings, raised operating temperature and
higher sliding velocities, which can cause excessive friction and can significantly affect the
durability of components. Of the total frictional loss in an internal combustion engine, 6%
to 35% is attributed to the valve train [1,2]. At lower engine speeds and higher operating
temperatures, the valve train’s frictional losses become of relatively greater importance [1,3].
Due to wear and consequently reliability problems, the engine valve train has proven to be
the most difficult to design and lubricate effectively [4]. Presently, there is an increased trend
in using low-viscosity oils in engines to reduce sliding friction and to achieve enhanced
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 2 of 20

fuel economy. The same has pushed the lubrication mode at the cam–follower interface
further towards the mixed and boundary lubrication regimes, thereby raising concerns
about the durability of the mating engine components.
Direct-acting bucket tappet and end-pivoted roller follower configurations are exten-
sively used in modern engines due to their superior performance. Significant research
has reported in the past on the frictional and wear characteristics of bucket tappets valve
trains [5–12]. However, little to no work has been performed/reported on the friction
measurement at cam–roller contact, particularly in-end pivoted roller finger follower valve
trains due to involvement of experimental difficulties. In the past, it has been reported [13]
that the valve train friction can be reduced by about 50% by employing a roller follower.
It was identified [14] that frictional losses were reduced by 80% using a roller follower
as compared to a flat-faced follower. The research of [15,16] analyzed the friction of a
Cummins L-10 engine valve train with a roller follower and identified that the frictional
loss was mainly due to the mixed lubrication regime. In a creep study [17] at the cam–roller
interface reported that the contact experiences sliding and rolling friction, where the rolling
friction dominates. It was also reported that [18,19] the sliding of rollers on the camshaft
surface can increase the friction in a roller follower valve train.
The majority of the experimental research work on friction measurement in roller
follower valve trains reported in the past has been performed on highly modified test rigs,
which may restrict the capture of the true picture of the phenomenon under investigation. A
recent shift in the engineering oriented towards surface texturing, surface coatings, surface
treatments and nanoparticles has shown significant improvement in durability, friction,
wear and overall performance of mating machine parts [20–29]. Real production engines
have been used for investigating the tribological behavior of various engine components,
parts and assemblies [8,19,30,31]. Moreover, employment of engineered surfaces is also
being pursued vigorously in the automotive sector to reduce friction and improve efficiency,
life and durability of components. The only work that has been reported on the analyzing
the effect of WPC treatment in a production engine is [32], which showed the benefits of
this treatment in reducing roller slip on a real production engine tested under motored
conditions. The results of [32] clearly present the advantages of using this surface treatment
method, and WPC requires further experimental investigation. Thus, an elaborated research
work to measure friction at the cam–roller interface considering sensitivity to surface
treatment under actual operating conditions becomes essential.
The WPC (Wonder Process Craft) surface treatment method has been used for a
number of years in Japan. Limited details are available about the WPC process, which
has over 40 patents [33,34]. The WPC surface treatment process is analogous to shot
peening. As represented in Figure 1a, WPC treatment is a technology that involves a jet
of particles mixed into a compressed gas, which is bombarded onto a metallic surface
at high speed [35]. Fuji Kihan Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, developed a surface treatment
procedure in which the effects of forging and heat treatment were attained by injecting
particles within a duration of tens of seconds to a time span of several minutes at high
speeds, having a diameter of 50 microns, 1/3000 size in volume in comparison to those
used in conventional shot peening methods, which involve the use of particles of around
600–800 mm in diameter [33–35]; a comparison between the particle size has been shown
in Figure 1b.
Materials
Materials2023,
2023,16,
16,x3431
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of3 20
of 20

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 1. (a) WPC
WPC process,
process,(b)
(b)Shot
Shotpeening
peening(left)
(left)&&WPC
WPC(right).
(right).Reprinted/adapted
Reprinted/adaptedwith
withpermis-
permission from [36]. 2023, FUJI KIHAN CO.,LTD
sion from [36]. 2023, FUJI KIHAN CO.,LTD [37]. [37].

This surface
surface treatment
treatmentmethod
methodemulates
emulatesa astrengthening
strengthening process
processachieved
achievedduring
during
forging, heat
forging, heat treatment,
treatment,penetrant
penetrantdiffusion
diffusionand andplating
platingbyby
instantaneous
instantaneous repeated
repeatedrapid
rapid
heating and
heating and cooling.
cooling. TheTherepetitive
repetitiverapid
rapidheating
heating andandcooling
coolingisisachieved
achievedby byinjecting
injectingthe
the fine
fine particles
particles onto
onto thethemetallic
metallicsurface
surface [37].
[37]. The
The metallic
metallicstructure
structurebecomes
becomes extremely
extremely
durable through densification, miniaturization and the alloying
durable through densification, miniaturization and the alloying process [37]. process [37].
Intrinsically engraved machining fine grooves on metallic surfaces are transformed
Intrinsically engraved machining fine grooves on metallic surfaces are transformed
into micro-dimples by the impact of ultrafine media through WPC treatment, which then act
into micro-dimples by the impact of ultrafine media through WPC treatment, which then
as reservoirs for oil [32,34]. The transformed and thoroughly compacted surface overcomes
act as reservoirs for oil [32,34]. The transformed and thoroughly compacted surface
the issues of brittleness that is normally faced when metallic parts are hardened [34,35,37].
overcomes the issues of brittleness that is normally faced when metallic parts are
WPC treatment helps reduce sliding friction when applied on pistons, cam shaft and crank
hardened [34,35,37].
shafts [36,38]. WPC treatment
Friction reduction helps reduce
in WPC-treated mating sliding
surfaces friction when
is obtained applieda on
by creating
pistons, cam shaft and crank shafts [36,38]. Friction reduction in
unique micro-dimple pattern on the surface [32,37]. WPC corrects pinholes and blowholesWPC-treated mating
surfaces is obtained by creating a unique micro-dimple pattern on
and in casted products, increases resistance to wear, chipping resistance and pitching the surface [32,37].
WPC corrects
resistance [39]. pinholes and blowholes and in casted products, increases resistance to
wear,Tochipping
summarize, resistance and pitching
WPC surface resistance
treatment [39]. has effects of enhanced impact
technology
To summarize,
resistance, WPClife,
better surface surface
lowertreatment technology
slide resistance, has effects
increases the powerof enhanced impact
and provides
resistance, better surface
better fuel efficiency, life, lower
and shortens slide engine
the initial resistance, increases
running-in the [33–36,38,39].
period power and provides
WPC
enhances
better fuelsurface hardness,
efficiency, provides the
and shortens better adhesion
initial engineofrunning-in
films and results
periodin [33–36,38,39].
low-temperature WPC
brittleness surface
enhances prevention and corrosion
hardness, providesprevention [33–36,38,39].
better adhesion Images
of films andof results
WPC-treated
in low-
metallic parts brittleness
temperature are shown in Figure 2. and corrosion prevention [33–36,38,39]. Images of
prevention
In this research, Wonder
WPC-treated metallic parts are Process
shownCraft (WPC)
in Figure 2. surface treatment was applied to an
end-pivoted roller finger follower and an internal combustion engine was instrumented
to determine the friction at cam–roller contact in a Toyota Prius 1NZ engine head. A
comprehensive test program at different camshaft operating speeds and various oil inlet
temperatures was undertaken. Both original and WPC surface-treated rollers were used
to determine the values of friction at cam–roller contact, thereby providing opportunity
to analyze the impact of the surface treatment on friction reduction. No modification of
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 4 of 20

components was ensured to obtain the true picture of the phenomenon under investigation.
It is strongly believed that the reported research work will be very valuable to enhancing
the tribological efficiency of roller follower valve trains. This paper aims to highlight
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20
an effective way, based on surface treatment of tribological components, of reducing the
friction in engine valve trains.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a) Thermal treatment
(a) Thermal treatment effect;
effect; (b)
(b) micro-dimple
micro-dimple effect.
effect. Reprinted/adapted
Reprinted/adapted with
with permission
permission
from [36]. 2023, FUJI KIHAN CO.,LTD [40].
from [36]. 2023, FUJI KIHAN Co., Ltd. [40].

2. Experimental SetupWonder Process Craft (WPC) surface treatment was applied to an

In this research,
end-pivoted
2.1. Engine roller finger follower and an internal combustion engine was instrumented
to determine the friction
The experiments were at cam–roller
performed contact
on the in ahead
cylinder Toyota
of a Prius
Toyota1NZ
Priusengine head. A
1NZK gasoline
comprehensive test program at different camshaft operating speeds and
engine. It is a 4-cylinder, 1.5 L, 16-valve engine with a variable valve timing-intelligent various oil inlet
temperatures was undertaken. Both original and WPC surface-treated
(VVT-i) system. Each cylinder consists of two intake valves and two exhaust valves, which rollers were used
to determine the values of friction
are directly operated by twin camshafts. at cam–roller contact, thereby providing opportunity
to analyze the impact
The angle of theseof the surface
valves 33.5◦ ; therefore,
is set attreatment on friction reduction.
the cylinder Noismodification
head quite compact.of
components
The valves are was ensured
operated by to obtain the true
an end-pivoted rollerpicture of the phenomenon
finger follower with hydraulicunderlash
investigation.
adjusters. BothIt the
is strongly believed
intake and thatcamshafts
exhaust the reported are research work will
driven through be verychain.
a timing valuable
An
to enhancing
oil passage is the tribological
provided insideefficiency
the camshaftsof roller follower
so that valve
oil can trains. This
be supplied paper
to the aims to
intelligent
highlight
(VVT-i) an effective
system. way, based
The camshaft and cam on roller
surface treatment
interface of tribological
are sprayed with oil components,
through a spray of
reducinglocated
channel the friction
in theincover
engine valve
of the trains.
engine head for lubrication purposes.

2.2. Test Bench Setup

2. Experimental
A flexible engine test bench (Figure 3) was developed for the tests, and the schematic
2.1. Engine
of the test bench is shown in Figure 4. It comprised two electric motors, an oil pump,
The experiments were performed on the cylinder head of a Toyota Prius 1NZK
oil heating/cooling system, motor controllers and an optical encoder. The cylinder head
gasoline engine. It is a 4-cylinder, 1.5 L, 16-valve engine with a variable valve timing-
was bolted securely onto the test plate, which was then attached to a rig stand in order to
intelligent (VVT-i) system. Each cylinder consists of two intake valves and two exhaust
minimize vibrations. The camshaft was driven with a 5.5 kW, 3-phase induction motor. The
valves, which are directly operated by twin camshafts.
camshaft was connected to the motor with the help of an axial plug-in type steel bellows
The angle of these valves is set at 33.5°; therefore, the cylinder head is quite compact.
coupling. The purpose of using this specific coupling was to transmit the torque without
The valves are operated by an end-pivoted roller finger follower with hydraulic lash
any backlash and to provide compensation for radial, angular and axial misalignments.
adjusters. Both the intake and exhaust camshafts are driven through a timing chain. An
The speed of the camshaft could be varied up to 3000 rpm and was controlled through a
oil passage is provided inside the camshafts so that oil can be supplied to the intelligent
microprocessor-based programmable AC motor controller. The controller was set up in a
(VVT-i) system. The camshaft and cam roller interface are sprayed with oil through a
closed-loop vector mode feedback mechanism through an encoder so that 100% standstill
spray channel
torque could belocated in the
provided. coverresolution
A high of the engine head for
760 series lubrication
pull-up purposes.
type British optical encoder
that provided 720 incremental pulses per revolution was mounted at end of the electric
2.2. Test Bench
motor. The encoder was used in the determination of the cam–crank angle and acted as
A flexible
an external engine
clock testdata
for the bench (Figure 3)
acquisition was developed
system so that thefor the tests, andfriction
instantaneous the schematic
torque
of the test
reading bench
could is shown in Figure
be synchronized 4. It
with the comprised
camshaft two
angle. electric
The top ofmotors,
cam lift an
was oildetermined
pump, oil
heating/cooling
using system,
a dial indicator withmotor controllers
an accuracy 0.4◦ .an
of ±and Theoptical
indexencoder. Theoptical
pulse of the cylinder head was
encoder
bolted securely onto the test plate, which was then attached to a rig
synchronized to appear at the cam’s nose. The incremental pulses of the encoder were stand in order to
used
minimize vibrations. The camshaft was driven with a 5.5 kW, 3-phase ◦
induction
as an external trigger to acquire the signal from the strain gauges at every 0.5 , providing motor.
The camshaft was connected to the motor with the help of an axial plug-in type steel
bellows coupling. The purpose of using this specific coupling was to transmit the torque
without any backlash and to provide compensation for radial, angular and axial
misalignments. The speed of the camshaft could be varied up to 3000 rpm and was
 thethe
cam–crank
cam–crank angle
angleandand acted
actedasas
ananexternal
externalclockclockfor
forthe
thedata
data acquisition systemso
acquisition system sothat
that
thethe
instantaneous
instantaneous friction
friction torque
torque reading
readingcould couldbe besynchronized
synchronized with with the camshaftangle.
the camshaft angle.
TheThetoptopof cam lift was determined using a dial indicator
of cam lift was determined using a dial indicator with an with an accuracy of ±0.4°. The
of ±0.4°. The
index
indexpulse
pulseof of
thethe optical
optical encoder
encoderwas wassynchronized
synchronized to to appear
appear at the cam’s cam’s nose.
nose. The
The
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 incremental
incremental pulses
pulses of of
thetheencoder
encoderwerewereused usedasasan anexternal
external trigger
trigger to acquire
acquire 5the
the signal
signal
of 20
fromfrom
thethe strain
strain gauges
gauges at at every
every 0.5°,providing
0.5°, providing720 720readings
readingsin in one
one complete rotation.
rotation.TheThe
index
index pulsepulse
waswasreadread separately
separately asas
anananalog
analoginput.
input.For
Foroiloilcirculation
circulation through
through the theengine,
engine,
a 180-bar
720
a 180-bar oil oil
readings in
pumppump
one wasused.
complete
was used. TheThe
rotation.
The pump
pump index was
pulse
was driven
was read
driven byseparately
by aa 1.5
1.5 kWaselectric
an analog
electric motor.
motor.
Temperature
input.
Temperature For oil of theoiloil
of circulation
the waswas controlled
through the with
controlled withthe
engine, the helpof
ahelp
180-barofanan in-line
oilin-line plateused.
pump plate
was type heat
type The exchanger,
heat pump
exchanger,
was
which
which driven
waswas by a 1.5 kW
connected
connected electric
to to motor.heating
ananexternal
external Temperature
heating of the oil was
andrefrigerant
and refrigerant controlledunit.
circulation
circulation withA
unit. AthePiezo-
Piezo-
help of
resistivean in-line
pressure plate type
sensor heat
was exchanger,
used to which
measure was connected
the oil to an
pressure, external
whereas heating
a k-type
resistive pressure sensor was used to measure the oil pressure, whereas a k-type
and refrigerant was
thermocouple circulation
attached unit. A Piezo-resistive pressure sensor was used to measure
thermocouple
the oil
waswhereas
pressure,
attached a
at at
k-type
the
the oiloilinlet
inletofofthe
thermocouple
theengine
was
enginehead
attached
head
at
gallery
gallery
the oil
for measuring
for
inlet
measuring
of the engine
the
theoil
oil
temperature.
temperature. In order to prevent heat loss, all of the oil-circulating pipes were properly
head galleryIn
insulated. fororder to prevent
measuring the oilheat loss, all of
temperature. In the
orderoil-circulating
to prevent heat pipes
loss,were
all of properly
the
insulated.
oil-circulating pipes were properly insulated.

Figure3.3.Engine
Figure Enginetest
test bench.
bench.
Figure 3. Engine test bench.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of engine test bench.

The oil pressure was also controlled through a separate microprocessor-based pro-
grammable controller. Feedback proportional integral derivative (PID) controls were used
to control the engine parameters, i.e., the camshaft speed, the lubricant pressure and the
oil temperature.
 used to temperature.
the oil control the engine parameters, i.e., the camshaft speed, the lubricant pressure
the oil temperature.
3. Instrumentation and Calibration
3.3.1.
Instrumentation
Torque Tube and Calibration
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 3.1. Torque Tube 6 of 20
In this research project, a specially designed torque tube was used to measur
valveIn train’s
this research
friction.project, a specially
The torque tube was designed torque
conceived in tube
a waywas thatused to measure
it could be cou
valve
3.with
train’s friction.
camshaft without
Instrumentation
The torque tube was conceived in a way that
any modification. For this purpose, special flange adopters
and Calibration
it could be coup
with camshaft
designed
3.1. Torque andwithout
Tube any modification.
manufactured. With the For helpthisof purpose, special flange
these adopters, adopters
the torque tubew
designed
attached and
In this to themanufactured.
research exhaust Withdesigned
project, camshaft.
the help
a specially High-resistance,
of these
torque tube
adopters, measure
two-element
was used to90°
thetorque
torque tube
thegauges
attached
positioned
valve to the exhaust
on the torque
train’s friction. camshaft.
tube
The torque High-resistance,
at opposite
tube was conceivedsidesinso two-element
that that
a way 90°
the ittorsion
could be torque
and consequentlw
coupled gauges
positioned
drive
with torque
camshaft onwithout
the torque
could be tube at opposite
anyevaluated.
modification.The thissides
Forstrain so that
gauges
purpose, theattached
were
special torsion
flange and
in a consequently
adopters full
were bridge ci
designed
drive and
configuration manufactured.
torque could (Figure With
be evaluated.the help
5) so thatThe of these
the strain adopters,
effect gauges the torque
of temperature/thermal tube was
were attached in adrift attached
full on
bridge
the cir
ou
toelectrical
the exhaust camshaft. High-resistance, two-element 90 ◦ torque gauges were positioned
configuration (Figure 5) so that the effect of temperature/thermal
signal could be reduced. Michigan Scientific B6-2 slip ring assembly was us drift on the ou
on the torque tube at opposite sides so that the torsion and consequently the drive torque
electrical
handle signalgauge
strain couldbridge
be reduced. Michigan
and maintain Scientific
proper driveB6-2 slip ring assembly
arrangements, as shown wasinuse
F
could be evaluated. The strain gauges were attached in a full bridge circuit configuration
handle
6.
(Figure strain
5) so thatgauge bridge
the effect and maintain proper
of temperature/thermal drive
drift arrangements,
on the output electricalas signal
shown in Fig
6.
could be reduced. Michigan Scientific B6-2 slip ring assembly was used to handle strain
gauge bridge and maintain proper drive arrangements, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Schematic
Schematic of bridge
of full full bridge
strain strain gauge circuit.
gauge circuit.
Figure 5. Schematic of full bridge strain gauge circuit.

Figure
Figure 6. 6. Attachment
Attachment of torque
of torque tubemotor.
tube with with motor.
Figure 6. Attachment of torque tube with motor.
3.2. Calibration Procedure
3.2. Calibration Procedure
Before usingProcedure
3.2. Calibration the torque tube for experimental tests, it was calibrated by applying
torque Before using thebench.
using a calibration torque
Thetube fortube
torque experimental tests,
was fixed firmly it was
between twocalibrated
shafts with by app
Before
torque usingusing
a the torque
calibration tube
bench. for
The experimental
torque tube tests,
was it
fixed was calibrated
firmly between
flange adapters. These shafts were then fixed with self-aligning frictionless ball bearings,by two
apply
s
torquein-turn
which usingwere
a calibration
attached tobench. The
the work torque
bench. Onetube
end was
of thefixed
torquefirmly between
tube was made two sh
stationary/static by bolting the attached shaft to a fixed support. A bar along with a
weight-hanging arrangement was attached to the other end (Figure 7).
 with flange adapters. These shafts were then fixed with self-aligning frictionless ball
with were
bearings, which in-turn flange adapters.
attached These
to the workshafts
bench.were
One then
end offixed with self-aligning
the torque tube was frictionless
bearings,
made stationary/static which
by bolting in-turn
the were
attached attached
shaft to the
to a fixed work A
support. bench. One end
bar along withof
a the torque tube
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 made stationary/static by bolting the attached shaft to a fixed support. A7bar
of 20along w
weight-hanging arrangement was attached to the other end (Figure 7).
weight-hanging arrangement was attached to the other end (Figure 7).

.
Figure 7. Torque transducer calibration bench. .
Figure
Figure 7. 7. Torque
Torque transducer
transducer calibration
calibration bench. bench.
The calibration of the torque tube was carried out by taking 12 readings in both
The calibration
clockwise and counterclockwise of the torque
directions over tube
a spanwasofcarried out A
by relationship
taking 12 readings
was 12inreadings
both
The calibration of the torque tube ±20
wasNm. carried out by taking in
clockwise and counterclockwise directions over a span of ±20 Nm. A relationship was
developed between the applied
clockwisebetween torque and the
and counterclockwise output strain values by measuring the
developed the applied torquedirections overstrain
and the output a span of ±20
values Nm. A relationship
by measuring the
output strain against each value of the
between applied
the torque.
applied For
torque each
and step,
the an average
output of
strain three
output strain against each value of the applied torque. For each step, an average ofby
developed values measuring
three
calibration readings were taken
output strain
calibration and a
against
readings relation
were each was
taken valuedeveloped as
of the applied
and a relation shown in
torque.
was developed Figure
as For
shown 8.
each step, an
in Figure 8. average of
calibration readings were taken and a relation was developed as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Torque transducer calibration

Figure 8. Torque curve.calibration curve.
transducer

The slope of this The

Figure 8.slope
straight of this
line
Torque wasstraight line was
calculated,
transducer calculated,
which
calibration provided
curve. which provided
the therelating
equation equation relating
the output strain with the applied torque. The frictional torque values
the output strain with the applied torque. The frictional torque values of the ball bearings of the ball bearings
were taken as negligible compared to the applied torque.
were taken as negligibleThe slope oftothis
compared the straight line was calculated, which provided the equation rel
applied torque.
the output strain with the applied torque. The frictional torque values of the ball bea
4. Materials and Methods
were taken as negligible compared to the applied torque.

4. Materials and Methods

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 2

Materials
Materials 2023, 16,16,x 3431
2023, FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20 8 of 20
To investigate the effects of surface treatment of friction, WPC treatment was carried
out on the roller race of a Toyota Prius 1NZK engine valve train, which is closely related
4.toMaterials
the and Methods
Toshot peening
investigate process
the effects[35]. In WPCtreatment
of surface treatment, of spherical ceramic
friction, WPC media was
treatment of nearly 5
carried
To investigate
microns size werethebombarded
effects of surface
on atreatment
metal of friction,
surface at WPC treatment
near-sonic speed,waswhich
carriedformed
out on the roller race of a Toyota Prius 1NZK engine valve train, which is closely related
out
hard on the roller race ofsurface,
a ToyotaasPrius 1NZK engine
Figurevalve train, which is closely related
to themicro-dimpled
shot peening process [35]. shown
In WPC intreatment, 9. spherical ceramic media of nearly 50
to the shot peening process [35]. In WPC treatment, spherical ceramic media of nearly
microns
50 micronssize
sizewere
were bombarded
bombarded on ona metal
a metal surface
surface at near-sonic
at near-sonic speed,speed, which formed
which formed a a
hardmicro-dimpled
hard micro-dimpled surface,
surface, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 9. 9.

Figure 9. WPC treatment process. Reprinted/adapted with permission from [36]. 2023, FUJI
KIHAN CO.,LTD [38].
Figure9.9.WPC
Figure WPCtreatment process.
treatment Reprinted/adapted
process. with permission
Reprinted/adapted from [36].
with permission from2023, FUJI
[36]. KIHAN
2023, FUJI
Co., This
Ltd. bombardment
[38].
KIHAN CO.,LTD [38].
produces surface compressive stress, plastic deformation and
grain refinement [36]. As a result, the fatigue strength, friction and stress corrosion and
This bombardment
fracture of produces surface compressive stress, plastic deformation andsmall
grain mass o
Thisresistance
bombardment the produces
component is improved,
surface compressive considerably. Due to deformation
stress, plastic the and
refinement
the media, [36].
the As a result,
affected the
area fatigue
of WPC strength,
treatment friction
is lessand stress
than corrosion
0.0254 mm and fracture
[35,40]. Due to WPC
grain refinement
resistance of the
[36]. Asisaimproved,
component
result, the fatigue strength,
considerably.
friction and stress
Due toconsequently
the small massresults
corrosion and
of the media,
treatment,
fracture the
resistance surface
of the roughness
component increases, which in increased
the affected area of WPC treatment is lessisthanimproved,
0.0254 mm considerably.
[35,40]. Due to DueWPC to the small
treatment, mass of
wettability [41]. According to the Wenzel relation [42], the ability of liquids to retain thei
the surface roughness increases, which consequently results in increased wettability [41]. WPC
the media, the affected area of WPC treatment is less than 0.0254 mm [35,40]. Due to
contact with
treatment,
According tothe a solid
the surface
Wenzel surface is enhanced
roughness
relation by increasing
increases,
[42], the ability ofwhich the
liquidsconsequently values
to retain of contact
their surface
resultswith roughness
in increased
a up
to a
solid certain limit.
surface [41].
wettability A
is enhanced 3D
According optical interferometer
by increasing
to the Wenzelthe values was used
of surface
relation to
[42],roughnesscreate
the ability three-dimensional
upoftoliquids
a certaintolimit. surfac
retain their
Aprofiles
3D of
opticalboth the
interferometertreated and
was untreated
used to create roller as shown
three-dimensional
contact with a solid surface is enhanced by increasing the values of surface roughness in Figure
surface 10. The
profiles average
of both surfac
up
roughness
the treated and(Ra) of
untreatedthe untreated
roller as roller
shown in was
Figure found
10. Theto be 0.204
average
to a certain limit. A 3D optical interferometer was used to create three-dimensional surface µ m,
surface whereas
roughness the
(Ra)Ra of th
of the untreated
treated roller rollerdetermined
was found toas be0.402
0.204 µm, m.whereas the Ra of the treated roller was
profiles of bothwas the treated and untreated µroller Average
as shownsurface in Figure roughness (Ra)
10. The average of surface
mating
determined
metallic as
parts 0.402
is µm.
known Average
to havesurface
an roughness
influence (Ra)
on of mating
overall metallic
friction parts
and is
wear known
performanc
roughness
to have
(Ra) of the
an average
influencesurface
untreated
on overall
roller was
friction and wear
found to be 0.204
performance
µThe
m, average
[43].0.160
whereassurface the Ra of the
[43]. The
treated roller roughness (Ra) of the cam lobe was µ m. Scanning of electron
roughness (Ra) was
of thedetermined
cam lobe was as0.160
0.402µm. µ m.Scanning
Average surface
electron roughness
microscopy (Ra) of
images mating
microscopy
metallic parts images
is knownof WPC-treated
to have an rollers
influence are shown
on overall in Figure
friction 11. The
and grey
wear marks on th
performance
WPC-treated rollers are shown in Figure 11. The grey marks on the surface of the rollers
surface
[43].
clearlyTheofaverage
the rollers
describe the surface clearly
evidence of describe
roughness the of
(Ra)
the micro-shot evidence oflobe
the camspots.
peening the wasmicro-shot
0.160 µ m.peening
Scanning spots.
electron
microscopy images of WPC-treated rollers are shown in Figure 11. The grey marks on the
surface of the rollers clearly describe the evidence of the micro-shot peening spots.

Figure 10. Three-dimensional surface optical profilometry plots: (a) original untreated roller;
Figure 10. Three-dimensional surface optical profilometry plots: (a) original untreated roller; (b)
(b) WPC-treated roller.
WPC-treated roller.
Figure 10. Three-dimensional surface optical profilometry plots: (a) original untreated roller; (b)
WPC-treated roller.
Materials2023,
Materials 2023,16,
16,3431
x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
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20

(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a) Original untreated roller; (b) WPC-treated roller.
Figure 11. (a) Original untreated roller; (b) WPC-treated roller.

5. Data
5. Data Acquisition
Acquisition
Anadvanced
An advancedhigh-speed
high-speeddata data acquisition
acquisition system
system (DAQ)
(DAQ) waswas developed
developed to to measure
measure
thevalve
the valvetrain’s
train’sfriction.
friction. This
This DAQ
DAQ system
system waswas based
based onon National
National Instruments
Instrumentshigh-tech
high-tech
DAQ hardware
DAQ hardwareand andLabVIEW
LabVIEWsoftware.
software. TheThe entire
entire data
dataacquisition
acquisition system
system was
wasdivided
divided
intotwo
into twomain
maingroups.
groups. First
First group
group comprised
comprised different
different compact
compact DAQDAQ modules,
modules, whichwhich
were
used
wereto control
used and monitor
to control oil temperature,
and monitor engine
oil temperature, camshaft
engine speedspeed
camshaft and oil
and pressure. The
oil pressure.
second groupgroup
The second comprised an SCXI-1000
comprised chassis chassis
an SCXI-1000 with some withSCXI
somemodules whose purpose
SCXI modules whose
was to acquire
purpose was toand read and
acquire the index andindex
read the incremental pulses from
and incremental the encoder
pulses from thealong with
encoder the
along
strain gauge
with the signal.
strain gaugeThe incremental
signal. encoder pulses
The incremental encoder were usedwere
pulses as anused
external
as antrigger to
external
acquire theacquire
trigger to signal. the
Thesignal.
encoder Theprovided
encoderan incremental
provided pulse after pulse
an incremental every after
0.5 degrees of
every 0.5
the cam angle;
degrees of the therefore,
cam angle;the circuitrythe
therefore, wascircuitry
designed in designed
was such a way in that
suchthe strain
a way value
that the
from
strainthe torque
value fromtube
thecould
torque recorded
tube could afterrecorded
every 1 degree of the1 cam
after every degreeangle. High-quality
of the cam angle.
slip ring assembly
High-quality was assembly
slip ring used to pass wasoutput
used to strain
passsignals
outputfrom the
strain rotating
signals torque
from tube to
the rotating
the SCXI terminal block. The strain gauges were used in a full bridge
torque tube to the SCXI terminal block. The strain gauges were used in a full bridge configuration with an
excitation voltage of 5 Volts. Simultaneous sampling was used to acquire
configuration with an excitation voltage of 5 Volts. Simultaneous sampling was used to all the data. The
process
acquireof allcontrolling,
the data. The monitoring
process ofand logging the
controlling, completeand
monitoring data was performed
logging the complete using
dataa
custom-designed graphical user interface program in LabVIEW
was performed using a custom-designed graphical user interface program in LabVIEW software.
software.
6. Experimental Procedures
The experiments
6. Experimental were performed for the exhaust-side camshaft only, as both inlet and
Procedures
exhaust cams are identical. The experiments were conducted in two phases. In the first
The experiments were performed for the exhaust-side camshaft only, as both inlet
phase, experiments were performed on the untreated roller, whereas in the second phase,
and exhaust cams are identical. The experiments were conducted in two phases. In the
a WPC-treated roller was used. For both phases, the friction was measured at varying
first phase, experiments were performed on the untreated roller, whereas in the second
lubricant temperatures of 25 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C and 95 ◦ C and camshaft speeds of 600 rpm, 1200 rpm
phase, a WPC-treated roller was used. For both phases, the friction was measured at
and 1800 rpm, respectively. A base oil of Group IV with 4cSt kinematic viscosity was used.
varying lubricant temperatures of 25 °C, 60 °C and 95 °C and camshaft speeds of 600 rpm,
The recent trend of thinner oil application to engines by OEMs made this base oil the most
1200 rpm
suitable and
one for1800
thisrpm, respectively.
experimental study.A base oil of Group IV with 4cSt kinematic viscosity
was Itused. The recent trend of thinner
has been previously reported by oil [1–3,5,9,10,44]
application to engines by OEMs
that despite usingmade this base
temperature-
oil the most suitable one for this experimental study.
compensated gauges, on elevated temperature, the signal levels of the transducers start
It at
to drift has been
zero previously
torque. reported
To counter by [1–3,5,9,10,44]
this effect, a methodology thatwas
despite using and
developed temperature-
reported
by [10], which has been employed in this experimental testing as well. According start
compensated gauges, on elevated temperature, the signal levels of the transducers to
to this
drift at zero torque. To counter this effect, a methodology was developed
methodology, the engine lubricant has to be heated up to the desired temperature using an and reported by
[10], which
external has beenand
refrigeration employed in this
heating unit andexperimental testing
circulated through theas well. for
engine According
2 h, after to this
which
methodology, the engine lubricant has to be heated up to the desired temperature
the built-in strain reading at idle condition is recorded and considered as the zero-torque using
an external
value, whichrefrigeration and heating
is then subtracted from theunit andresults.
final circulated
The through
samplingthe engine
rate was setforusing
2 h, after
the
which the built-in
incremental strain
pulse from thereading at The
encoder. idle encoder
condition is recorded
provided and considered
an incremental pulseas theevery
after zero-
torque value, which is then subtracted from the final results. The sampling rate was set
Materials
Materials2023, 16,16,
2023, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 10 10
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20 20

Materials 2023, 16, 3431 10 of 20

using
using the incremental
the incremental pulse
pulse from
from the encoder.
the encoder. The
Theencoder
encoder provided
provided ananincremental
incremental pulse
pulse
after
afterevery
every0.5 degrees
0.5 degrees of the
of cam
the cam angle
angle therefore
thereforethe circuitry
the circuitry was designed
was
0.5 degrees of the cam angle therefore the circuitry was designed in such a way that the designed in such
in such a way
a way
that
thatthethestrain
strainvalue
valuefrom
from the torque
the torque tube
tubecould
couldbe recorded
be recorded after
after
strain value from the torque tube could be recorded after every 1 degree of the cam angle. every
every 1 degree
1 degree of the
of the
cam
cam angle.
angle. Each
Each data
data set was
set was recorded
recorded between
between the interval
the intervalof two
of
Each data set was recorded between the interval of two index pulses of the encoder, which twoindex
index pulses
pulses ofofthethe
encoder,
encoder,
occurred which
which
after occurred
every 360◦ . after
occurred after
After every
every 360°.
following 360°.After
these following
After following
procedures, these
these
tests procedures,
were procedures,
performed,tests were
tests
and were
the
performed,
performed, and
corresponding and the corresponding
thewas
data corresponding data was logged and processed.
data was logged and processed.
logged and processed.
During
During
During the
the thetests,
tests,
tests, engine
engine engine operating
operating
operating conditions
conditionsconditions were
werecontinuously
were continuously continuously
monitored. monitored.
monitored.
Repeata-
Repeatability was performed on the untreated rollers and the test
bility was performed on the untreated rollers and the test results were found to befound
Repeatability was performed on the untreated rollers and the results
test resultswere
were found
under toto
be under
be under 0.1%
0.1%in variation,
in variation, as shown
as shown in Figures
in Figures 12 and
12 and13, indicating
13, indicating
0.1% in variation, as shown in Figures 12 and 13, indicating the greater suitability of a the greater
the greatersuitability
suitability
of a complete
of a complete
complete measurement
measurement
measurement systemsystem
system forfor
for the the
said said
the research
said research
research project.
project. project.

Figure 12.12.
Figure Repeatability test
Repeatability at at
test 25 °C.
Figure 12. Repeatability test at 2525 °C.
◦ C.

Figure Repeatability
13.13. test atat ◦ C.
9595
Figure 13.
Figure Repeatability test
Repeatability at
test 95 °C.
°C.
Materials
Materials 2023,
2023, 16,
16, x3431
FOR PEER REVIEW 1111of
of 20
20

7.
7. Results
Results and and Discussion
Discussion
The
The data acquired from
data acquired from the
the torque
torque transducers
transducers depicted
depicted aa characteristic
characteristic waveform.
waveform.
Since all the tests were performed under motored conditions, the shape of the waveform
remained
remained constant,
constant, which exhibited high repeatability of the installed transducers. The
instantaneous
instantaneous torque torque typically
typically comprises
comprises frictional
frictional (which
(which is is a function of tribological
performance) and geometrical torque components.
The geometrical
geometrical torquetorqueemerges
emergesdue duetotothe thevalve’s
valve’sopening
opening andand closing
closing operations.
operations. In
In order
order to open
to open thethe valve,
valve, force
force is applied
is applied against
against thethe resistance
resistance of the
of the valvevalve spring,
spring, andand
the
the energy
energy generated
generated fromfrom
thisthis process
process is consequently
is consequently stored
stored in the
in the valve
valve spring,
spring, which
which in
in
turnturn is released
is released to thetocamshaft
the camshaft
during during
the closing the ofclosing of the
the valve. valve. the
Therefore, Therefore, the
geometrical
torque has equal
geometrical torquepositive
has equalandpositive
negativeand constituents. On the other
negative constituents. On hand,
the otherthe hand,
frictional
the
torque is significant
frictional during the during
torque is significant valve’s the
opening
valve’sbutopening
diminishesbutduring
diminishesvalve’s closing.
during As a
valve’s
result, the
closing. Aswaveform
a result, the depicts more values
waveform depicts onmore
the positive
values side
on thethan the negative
positive side.the
side than By
taking the mean torque, the geometrical torque is effectively cancelled
negative side. By taking the mean torque, the geometrical torque is effectively cancelled out, leaving behind
onlyleaving
out, the frictional
behindcomponent.
only the frictional component.
vibrations of
Since vibrations of low
low levels
levels were present in the setup, some noise was therefore
present in the test test results,
results, which
whichwaswasthen
thenremoved
removedby bydigitally
digitallyfiltering
filteringthethedata
datathrough
througha
aButterworth
Butterworth filter. The
filter. cut-off
The frequency
cut-off frequency of ofthethe
filter was
filter set set
was to 200 Hz Hz
to 200 andandthe the
order of the
order of
filter was set to two. Figure 14 shows the result of digital filtering
the filter was set to two. Figure 14 shows the result of digital filtering the data obtained the data obtained from
the torque
from transducer.
the torque transducer.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Result
Result of
of applying
applying Butterworth
Butterworth filter
filter to
to the
the torque transducer result.
torque transducer result.

The instantaneous
instantaneous friction
frictionprofiles
profilesatatthe cam–roller
the cam–roller contact of both
contact the treated
of both as well
the treated as
as untreated rollersrollers
at 25 at◦ C and ◦
95 andC are
well as untreated 25 °C 95shown
°C areinshownFiguresin15Figure
and 16,15respectively.
and Figure The16,
geometrical torque
respectively. emerges duetorque
The geometrical to the valve’s
emerges opening
due toand theclosing
valve’soperations.
opening and To open the
closing
valve, force To
operations. is applied
open the against
valve,the resistance
force is appliedof the valvethe
against spring, and the
resistance of energy
the valvegenerated
spring,
fromthe
and thisenergy
processgenerated
is consequentlyfrom thisstored, whichisinconsequently
process turn is released to thewhich
stored, camshaft during
in turn is
the valve’s closure. Therefore, the geometrical torque has equal
released to the camshaft during the valve’s closure. Therefore, the geometrical torque has positive and negative
constituents.
equal positiveOn and thenegative
other hand, the frictional
constituents. On the torque
otheris hand,
significant during the
the frictional valve’s
torque is
opening but diminishes during valve’s closing. As a result, the
significant during the valve’s opening but diminishes during valve’s closing. As a result,waveform depicts more
values
the on the positive
waveform depicts moreside compared
values onto thethe negative
positive sideside. By taking
compared the negative
to the mean torque,
side. the
By
geometrical
taking torque
the mean is ideally
torque, cancelled out,
the geometrical effectively
torque is ideallyleaving
cancelledbehind only the frictional
out, effectively leaving
component.
behind Drive
only the torque component.
frictional values corresponding
Drive torque to cam
valuesrisecorresponding
and fall corresponding
to cam risetoand
the
cam’s nose area responsible for opening and closing of the valves
fall corresponding to the cam’s nose area responsible for opening and closing of the valves were observed, and the
data on the base circle of the cam lobe, which ranges from 0 ◦ to 90◦ and from 240◦ to 360◦ ,
were observed, and the data on the base circle of the cam lobe, which ranges from 0° to
did and
90° not significantly
from 240° to affect
360°, didthe drive torque values
not significantly andthe
affect thisdrive
datatorque
was thus filtered
values andout
thisfor all
data
tests. Since vibrations of low levels were present in the setup, yielding
was thus filtered out for all tests. Since vibrations of low levels were present in the setup, some noise in the
test results,
yielding somethey wereinremoved
noise by digitally
the test results, they filtering
were removedthe databythrough
digitally a Butterworth
filtering the filter.
data
The cut-off frequency of the filter was set to 200 Hz and the order of the filter was set to 2.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

through a Butterworth filter. The cut-off frequency of the filter was set to 200 Hz and the
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 12 of 20
order of the filter was set to 2.

Original Untreated Roller at 25oC

5

3
Drive Torque, [Nm]

2
600 rpm
1
1200 rpm
0 1800 rpm
55
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49

61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
-1

-2

-3
Cam-lobe Valve Operating Angle

(a)

Origin Untreated Roller at 95oC

5

3
Drive Torque, [Nm]

2
600 rpm
1
1200 rpm
0 1800 rpm
55
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49

61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157

-1

-2

-3
Cam-lobe Valve Operating Angle

(b)
Figure 15. Experimental instantaneous drive torque at engine speed of 600 rpm, 1200 rpm and 1800
Figure 15. Experimental instantaneous drive torque at engine speed of 600 rpm, 1200 rpm and
rpm at temperatures ff (a) 25 °C and
◦ (b) 95 °C; original
◦ roller.
1800 rpm at temperatures ff (a) 25 C and (b) 95 C; original roller.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 13 of 20

WPC Treated Roller at 25oC

5

3
Drive Torque, [Nm]

1 600 rpm

0 1200 rpm
55
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49

61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157
1800 rpm
-1

-2

-3

-4
Cam-lobe Valve Operating Angle

(a)

WPC Treated Roller at 95oC

5

3
Drive Torque, [Nm]

1 600 rpm

0 1200 rpm
55
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49

61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103
109
115
121
127
133
139
145
151
157

1800 rpm
-1

-2

-3

-4
Cam-lobe Valve Operating Angle

(b)
Figure 16.16.
Figure Experimental instantaneous
Experimental instantaneousdrive
drivetorque
torqueat
atengine
engine speed
speed of
of 600
600 rpm, 1200 rpm
rpm, 1200 rpm and
and 1800
rpm1800
at temperatures of (a) 25 °C and
◦ (b) 95 °C; WPC-treated
◦ roller.
rpm at temperatures of (a) 25 C and (b) 95 C; WPC-treated roller.

Accordingtotothe
According theWenzel
Wenzel relation
relation [42],
[42],increasing
increasingthethe
surface roughness
surface to a certain
roughness to a certain
extent enhances the ability of the liquids to retain their contact with the surface
extent enhances the ability of the liquids to retain their contact with the surface (increase
(increase
wettability). The WPC treatment process increases the surface roughness of the rollers by
wettability). The WPC treatment process increases the surface roughness of the rollers by
forming a fine micro-dimpled surface. This is one of the main reasons for the reduction in
forming a fine micro-dimpled surface. This is one of the main reasons for the reduction in
frictional losses. Due to the dimpled surface, an oil film is retained on the surface of the
roller, which reduces the direct contact between cam and roller, and as a result, friction is
reduced. The film’s retention is maximum at lower temperatures and weakens with the
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 o
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 14 of 20

a result the bonding between the roller’s surface and the liquid film diminishes. As
frictional
surfacelosses. Due to increases,
roughness the dimpled thesurface, an oil of
disruption film is retained on bonds
intermolecular the surface
alsoof the
increases, wh
roller, which reduces the direct contact between cam and roller, and as a result, friction is
leads to elevated surface energies. Because of the high surface energy, the surface tend
reduced. The film’s retention is maximum at lower temperatures and weakens with the
bond with the liquid molecules in order to minimize the energy, and liquids conseque
increase in temperature because at high temperatures the surface energy reduces, and as
achieve
a result the complete
the bonding between wetting of surfaces.
the roller’s The the
surface and increase
liquid in surface
film roughness
diminishes. As thealso redu
the roughness
surface contact angle, i.e., the
increases, the angle between
disruption the tangent bonds
of intermolecular to the also
liquid–vapor interface and
increases, which
line that represents the apparent solid surface, Figure 17. This reduction
leads to elevated surface energies. Because of the high surface energy, the surface tends in to
contact an
bond also
withincreases
the liquidsurface
moleculeswettability.
in order to minimize the energy, and liquids consequently
achieve the complete wetting of surfaces. The increase in surface roughness also reduces
the contact angle, i.e., the angle between the tangent to the liquid–vapor interface and the
line that represents the apparent solid surface, Figure 17. This reduction in contact angle
also increases surface wettability.

(a)

(b)

Figure 17. Definition of contact angle: (a) contact angle on ideal surface; (b) apparent contact angle
on rough surface.

The magnitude of measured frictional torque at the cam–roller interface under different
camshaft speeds and oil inlet temperatures for both the original untreated roller and for
the WPC-treated roller is displayed in Figure 18. The presented data is an average of ten
Figureengine
complete 17. Definition
cycles. ofIt contact
can alsoangle: (a) contact
be observed anglethat
clearly on ideal surface; (b)
the frictional apparent
losses of thecontact a
on rough surface.
WPC-treated roller are considerably less in comparison to the original untreated roller, as
shown in Figure 18. At a lubricant inlet temperature of 25 ◦ C and at cam speed of 600 rpm,
The magnitude
the difference of measured
in frictional losses between frictional
the originaltorque at the cam–roller
and WPC-treated rollers is interface
28% un
(thedifferent
friction torque is 0.43
camshaft Nm for
speeds theoil
and original roller and WPC-treated
inlet temperatures for both roller is 0.30 Nm).
the original untreated ro
However, ◦ C while operating on the same
and foratthea higher lubricantroller
WPC-treated inlet temperature
is displayedofin95Figure 18. The presented data is an aver
engine speed, the difference in frictional losses between
of ten complete engine cycles. It can also be observed clearly the original and WPC-treated roller losse
that the frictional
reduced by up to 19% (the friction torque is 0.59 Nm for the original untreated roller and for
the WPC-treated roller are considerably less in comparison to the original untreated ro
the WPC-treated roller it is 0.47 Nm). The reason for the reduction in friction for the WPC
asisshown
roller in Figure
attributed 18. At atreatment,
to the surface lubricantwhich
inlet relatively
temperature of 25 the
increased °C and at cam speed of
micro-surface
roughness of the roller by forming fine micro-sized dimpled surface, which helped retain roller
rpm, the difference in frictional losses between the original and WPC-treated
28%
the oil (the
film onfriction torque
the roller’s is 0.43
surface. ThisNm for theoforiginal
retention oil on theroller
rollerand WPC-treated
surface reduced theroller is
Nm).
direct However,
contact betweenat thea cam
higher
and lubricant inlet in
roller, resulting temperature of 95 °C while operating on
reduced friction.
same engine speed, the difference in frictional losses between the original and W
treated roller reduced by up to 19% (the friction torque is 0.59 Nm for the orig
untreated roller and for the WPC-treated roller it is 0.47 Nm). The reason for the reduc
in friction for the WPC roller is attributed to the surface treatment, which relativ
increased the micro-surface roughness of the roller by forming fine micro-sized dimp
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 2
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 15 of 20

(a)

(b)

Figure 18. Cont.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 2
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 16 of 20

(c)
Figure 18.18.
Figure Mean friction
Mean frictiontorque atcam–roller
torque at cam–roller interface
interface ◦ C;
at:25(a)
at: (a) 25°C; ◦ C;60°C;
(b) 60(b) ◦ C. 95°C.
(c) 95 (c)

Sliding at the roller–cam interface is principally regulated by the traction force of the
Sliding at the roller–cam interface is principally regulated by the traction force of the
interacting surfaces. The traction force is governed by multiple factors, which include
interacting surfaces.
the lubricant Thelubricant
viscosity, tractiontemperature,
force is governedlubricant byformulation/chemistry,
multiple factors, which include the
surface
lubricant
roughness viscosity,
of the matinglubricant
parts, temperature,
contact loading lubricant
and pressure formulation/chemistry,
at the hydraulic lash ad- surfac
roughness of the matingSlippage
juster [17–19,32,45–47]. parts, contact loading
of the roller normallyandoccurs
pressurewhenatthethe hydraulic
traction lash
force is not adjuste
able to keep the surfaces from rolling on each other [32]. It can be observed
[17–19,32,45–47]. Slippage of the roller normally occurs when the traction force is not able that an increase
in rotational
to keep the surfacesspeed of the camshaft
from rolling on results
eachinother
considerable
[32]. It reduction of frictional
can be observed torque
that at
an increase in
the cam–roller junction as shown in Figure 18. It has also been previously reported that
rotational speed of the camshaft results in considerable reduction of frictional torque a
an increase in lubricant film thickness typically at lower operating temperatures at the
the roller–cam
cam–roller junction
interface as shown
increases in Figure
the tendency 18. slip
of roller It has also of
because been
weak previously
traction forcereported
[47]. tha
an increase in lubricant
Lubricant film thickness
viscosity decreases with thetypically
increase in attemperature,
lower operating resulting temperatures
in a thinner at the
roller–cam
lubricantinterface
film at higher increases
operatingthetemperatures
tendency ofand roller slip oil
a thicker because
film at of weak
lower traction force
operating
temperatures.
[47]. At a higher temperature, the reduction in lubricant viscosity increases the
tendency towards mixed and boundary lubrication at lower engine speeds, but as the
Lubricant viscosity decreases with the increase in temperature, resulting in a thinne
rotational frequency increases, fluid film lubrication plays a greater role, and the lubrication
lubricant film at higher operating temperatures and a thicker oil film at lower operating
regime shifts to one of hydrodynamic lubrication. Higher lubricant entraining velocities at
temperatures. At a higher
any given temperature temperature,
produce higher valuesthe of
reduction in lubricant
oil film thickness viscosity In
[17–19,32,46,47]. increases
the the
tendency towards
case of the originalmixed and boundary
roller under lubrication
a lubricant inlet temperature at lower ◦
of 25 C,engine speeds,
the frictional but as the
losses
rotational frequency increases, fluid film lubrication plays a greater role, and th
reduced by 19% (from 0.43 Nm to 0.35 Nm) once the speed of the camshaft was increased
from 600 rpm
lubrication regime to 1800 rpm,
shifts toas shown
one in Figure 18a. Low
of hydrodynamic operating temperature
lubrication. and higher
Higher lubricant entraining
camshaft speed cause an increase in roller slippage under the influence of thicker lubricant
velocities at any given temperature produce higher values of oil film thickness [17–
film at the roller–cam contact zone. At a relatively higher operating temperature, the roller
19,32,46,47]. In the case
slip was reduced of the original
considerably due to theroller underinaoil
decrease lubricant inlet temperature
film thickness offering betterof 25 °C
the traction
frictional losses reduced by 19%
force at the cam–roller interaction zone.(from 0.43 Nm to 0.35 Nm) once the speed of the
camshaft was increased
However, from inlet
at a lubricant 600 rpm to 1800 of
temperature rpm, ◦
95 as shown
C with thein Figure
same 18a. Low
increment in theoperating
speed, the frictional losses reduced by 12%, as shown in Figure
temperature and higher camshaft speed cause an increase in roller slippage under the 18c. A similar situation
was alsooffound
influence thicker for the WPC-treated
lubricant film roller,
at thewhere the frictional
roller–cam contactlosses wereAt
zone. reduced by 8% highe
a relatively
and 10% at 25 ◦ C and 95 ◦ C, respectively, once the camshaft speed was increased from
operating temperature, the roller slip was reduced considerably due to the decrease in oi
600 rpm to 1800 rpm. The reason for this is that at higher frequencies, the lubrication
film thickness offering better traction force at the cam–roller interaction zone.
However, at a lubricant inlet temperature of 95 °C with the same increment in the
speed, the frictional losses reduced by 12%, as shown in Figure 18c. A similar situation
was also found for the WPC-treated roller, where the frictional losses were reduced by 8%
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 17 of 20

conditions improve significantly at the cam–roller interface due to a decrease in contact

load at the cam’s nose area [48] and a substantial increase in the quantity of lubricant
entrained [17–19,32,46,47]. However, at reduced frequencies, the contact load at the cam’s
nose is greatly affected by the compression of the valve spring, which causes higher friction
around the cam’s nose region. This effect weakens at higher camshaft speed because of the
inertial effects on the spring of the valve.
The effects of oil inlet temperature on the frictional torque at the cam–roller contact
are realized in Figure 18. At a low camshaft operating speed of 600 rpm, the frictional
torque increased by 27%—as shown in Figure 18a—once the temperature was increased
from 25 ◦ C to 95 ◦ C, whereas the rise in friction reached up to 33% at a relatively high-
speed of 1800 rpm as in Figure 18c. A similar trend of increase in frictional torque with
rise in oil inlet temperature was also observed for the WPC-treated roller as shown in
Figure 18. The reason for this is attributed to the fact that an increase in temperature
reduces the oil’s viscosity considerably. The lubrication mode is pushed more towards the
mixed and boundary regimes, increasing the tendency of asperity interactions, causing
increase in friction at the cam–roller interface [17–19,32,46,47]. The experimental data
shows a reduction in engine drive torque when using WPC-treated rollers in comparison to
untreated/original rollers in any given testing condition. One of the main reasons for the
reduction in drive torque of the WPC-treated rollers in comparison to the original untreated
rollers is the increase in surface roughness by the WPC process; this increased average
surface roughness has been known to help in lubricant film retention, which results in
improved traction and also a reduction in roller slippage [32]. Traction is most probably
improved by an increase in average surface roughness of the WPC-treated parts, which
results in the prevention of slippage at the cam–roller interface and in turn reduces the drive
torque. In addition to the phenomenon of increased lubricant retention obtained through
the application of WPC-treatment, there are multiple other benefits of applying this process
of mating metallic machine components and parts. The WPC process is protected by over
40 patents [34,39]; thus, limited information is available regarding the exact process. The
process is known to provide multiple advantages, including strengthening of the metallic
surface through thermal treatment and forging effects. Transformation into martensite
of the austenite retained in the metallic surface layer is performed via WPC, resulting in
a recrystallized, dense, high-toughness and high hardness surface [40], which not only
reduces roller slippage [32] but also results in a reduction in drive frictional torque.

8. Conclusions
The engine head of a modern gasoline internal combustion engine was instrumented
successfully for using an inline torque transducer to examine friction at the cam–roller
interface under actual operating conditions. Little-to-no modification of components helped
to capture the realistic friction data. The results revealed that frictional torque decreased
up to 20% with the increase in camshaft operating speed from 600 rpm to 1800 rpm due to
decreased contact load at cam’s nose region and enhanced lubrication conditions under the
influence of higher entraining velocity. However, an increment of up to 33% in the value
of valve train frictional torque was noted with an increase in oil inlet temperature. This is
because of the reduction in lubricant viscosity resulting in a thin oil film at the cam–roller
interface, thereby increasing the tendency of asperity interactions and a rise in friction at the
cam–roller interface. Reduced frictional torque in the range of 8% to 28% was recorded for
the WPC-treated roller in comparison to the original roller at different operating conditions,
which indicated strong potential for the employment of surface treatment in the automotive
sector/industry. The developed friction measurement technique and acquired experimental
data can be very useful to further enhancing the tribological efficiency of engine valve
trains in the future.
Materials 2023, 16, 3431 18 of 20

Author Contributions: S.R.S. and R.A.M. conceptualized this study and developed the relevant
procedures. M.U.B. and M.U.A. defined the methodology for conducting the experiments. M.H.N.
and M.K. implemented the test rig and developed the software for data acquisition. R.Z. and M.U.A.
contributed to this research by carrying out the experimental testing, performing the surface analyses,
interpreting the results, drafting the manuscript and compiling the data. J.A. performed repeatability
tests and contributed to the instrumentation of the engine head. M.A.A. performed formal analysis.
M.U.B. helped in experimentation, carried out data validation and contributed to the drafting of
the manuscript. K.O. performed the WPC coatings. M.A. contributed by identifying the lubricant
for testing, in explaining the obtained experimental data, and in the reviewing & editing of the
final version of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was partially funded by the National University of Sciences and Technology
(NUST), through the NUST-PPF R&D Fund, Category 1 (Grant for Young Researchers-Faculty),
ID No: 26795.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Patents and WPC® trademarks are FUJI KIHAN Co., Ltd. patents.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We acknowledge the financial support of Pakistan Science Foundation especially
in the development of the rig and subsystems. We also acknowledge the support of Kiyotaka Ogawa
and FUJI KIHAN Co., Ltd., Japan for the WPC treatment of rollers. We are extremely grateful to FUJI
KIHAN Co., Ltd. for allowing us to use their figure in this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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