Intercostal Muscles & Diaphragm

Muscles are only able to pull on bones, not push on them. This means that there must be two sets of
intercostal muscles to work antagonistically to facilitate breathing.

• External intercostal muscles, pull the rib cage up

• Internal intercostal muscles pull the ribcage down

The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdomen

Ventilation

During inhalation

• The diaphragm contracts and flattens

• The external set of intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribs up and out:
• This increases the volume of the chest cavity (thorax)
• Leading to a decrease in air pressure inside the lungs relative to outside the body
• Air is drawn in

During exhalation

• The diaphragm relaxes it moves upwards back into its domed shape
• The external set of intercostal muscles relax so the ribs drop down and in
• This decreases the volume of the chest cavity (thorax)
• Leading to an increase in air pressure inside the lungs relative to outside the body
• Air is forced out
 Forced Exhalation
• The external and internal intercostal muscles work as antagonistic pairs (meaning they work in
different directions to each other)
• When we need to increase the rate of gas exchange (for example during strenuous activity) the
internal intercostal muscles will also work to pull the ribs down and in to decrease the volume of
the thorax more, forcing air out more forcefully and quickly – this is called forced exhalation
• There is a greater need to rid the body of increased levels of carbon dioxide produced during
strenuous activity
• This allows a greater volume of gases to be exchanged
 Alveoli
• The alveoli are highly specialized for gas exchange
• There are many rounded alveolar sacs which give a very large surface area to volume
ratio
• Alveoli (and the capillaries around them) have thin, single layers of cells to minimize
diffusion distance
• Ventilation maintains high levels of oxygen and low levels of carbon dioxide in the
alveolar air space
• A good blood supply ensures constant supply of blood high in carbon dioxide and low in
oxygen
• A layer of moisture on the surface of the alveoli helps diffusion as gases dissolve
 Smoking and gas exchange
Smoking causes chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), coronary heart disease and
increased risks of several different types of cancer, including lung cancer
Chemicals in cigarettes include:
• Tar - a carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer)
• Nicotine - an addictive substance which also narrows blood vessels
• Carbon monoxide - reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
Nicotine
▪ Nicotine narrows blood vessels leading to an increased blood pressure
▪ It also increases heart rate
▪ Both of these effects can cause blood clots to form in the arteries leading to
heart attack or stroke
Carbon monoxide
▪ Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to hemoglobin, reducing the capacity of
blood to carry oxygen
▪ This puts more strain on the breathing system as breathing frequency and depth
need to increase in order to get the same amount of oxygen into the blood
▪ It also puts more strain on the circulatory system to pump the blood faster
around the body and increases the risk of coronary heart disease and strokes
Tar
▪ Tar is a carcinogen and is linked to increased chances of cancerous cells
developing in the lungs
▪ It also contributes to COPD, which occurs when chronic bronchitis and
emphysema (two different diseases which are frequently linked to smoking)
occur together
▪ Chronic bronchitis is caused by tar which stimulates goblet cells and mucus
glands to enlarge, producing more mucus
▪ It destroys cilia and mucus (containing dirt, bacteria and viruses) builds up
blocking the smallest bronchioles and leading to infections.
▪ A smoker's cough is the attempt to move the mucus.
Emphysema develops as a result of frequent infection, phagocytes that enter the lungs release
elastase, an enzyme that breaks down the elastic fibres in the alveoli. This means the alveoli
become less elastic and cannot stretch so many bursts. The breakdown of alveoli reduces the
surface area for gas exchange. As it progresses, patients become breathless and wheezy - they
may need a constant supply of oxygen to stay alive.