University of Chicago Press

Morale and Minority Groups

Author(s): Louis Wirth
Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Nov., 1941), pp. 415-433
Published by: University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2769291
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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS
LOUIS WIRTH

ABSTRACT
As a nation composed of many diverse racial and cultural elements,the United
States facesa unique problemof buildingnationalmorale. The Indian, the Negro,the
Oriental,and particularlythe European immigrantsand theirdescendantsconstitute
our principalminorities.The greatnumber,the dense concentration, and the isolated
grouplifeofsomeofthese,togetherwiththeirsubordinatesocial positionand theconse-
quences of our past Americanizationpolicies,raise questionsabout our national soli-
darity. The disadvantagedpositionofour minoritieslendsitselfreadilyto exploitation
by foreigngovernments.The Nazis and Fascists have employeda propaganda and
organizationalcampaigndesignedforAmericanconditions.Their appeals are directed
in part to the minorities,in part to the dominantgroups. The situationthuscreated
inclinesus to adopt remedialand precautionarymeasures,some of whichare ill ad-
vised. Our strategyofmorale-building mightwellcapitalizeon thediverseoriginofour
people and our democratictraditions.Our experiencein the last war and the lessons
learnedfromthe conquerednationsof Europe suggesta moreeffective nationalpolicy
for us. We are likely to get better morale by emphasizingour commonaspirations
ratherthanourcommonmemoriesbecause,ifourminorities can be convincedthattheir
minoritystatusis not permanentand that theycan hope to sharefullyin the promises
of democracy,theireffort in thenationalenterprisecan be reliedupon.

The concept"minorities" is hereused to applyto thosewhobe-

causeofphysicalorsocialandculturaldifferences receivedifferential
treatment andwhoregardthemselves as a peopleapart. Suchgroups
characteristicallyareheldinloweresteem,aredebarred fromcertain
opportunities, or are excludedfromfullparticipation in ournational
life. Certaingroupswithinoursocietyoccupynotmerelya disad-
vantageousobjectivepositionbut also tendto developa conception
ofthemselves as inferiors,
as aliens,and as persecuted groups,which
significantlyaffectstheirrolesin the collectiveenterprises of the
nation.The existenceofsuchgroupsin ourmidstcallsattention to
thefactthatoursocietyhas notyetbeenfullyknittogether intoa
single,integrated, nationalunit.
It wouldbe a graveerror, however, to exaggerate thedivisionthat
existsin thiscountryalongracialand culturallines,as notonlythe
Nazis but also our ownalarmistshave done. Whileit is necessary
to recognizethatsomesectionsofourpeoplecherishculturalherit-
ages whichhave theirrootsin othercountriesand continents, it is
equallypertinent to observethatformostofourpeopleand in the
4I5

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4I6 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

greaterpartoftheirlife-careers, the cultureofAmericais the only

mediumofexpression.The verynumberofourdiversepeoplesand
theirgradualinfusion intooursocietysave us fromthedichotomous
divisionintoAmericans and aliens,justas theunbrokendemocratic,
individualistic
tradition extending overnearlytwocenturies ofinde-
pendent nationallife us
prevents fromhopelessculturalfragmenta-
tionon onehandand rigiduniformization on theother.

I. THE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN MINORITIES

If we inquirewhotheseminorities in ourmidstare,we maybegin

withthetrulynativeAmericans, namely,theIndians,whowerere-
ducedto a stateofrelatively permanent bytheirtech-
subordination
nologicallysuperiorEuropeanconquerors.Theirnumberhas dwin-
dled to about threehundredand fifty thousand.But, sincea good
shareofthisnativepopulationlivesunderconditions ofsegregation
and tribalorganization and is notdeeplyinvolvedin ourindustrial
and politicallife,it is notordinarily thoughtofas constituting a sig-
nificantminority problem,especiallyin a periodofcrisissuchas we
facenow.
The secondand muchmoresignificant segmentof ourminority
peoplesis drawnfromthesuccessivewavesofEuropeanimmigrants
andtheirdescendants whocamehereas voluntary orforcedmigrants
fromthedaysofthefirst settlement onto thepresent.The approxi-
matelythirty-eight millionimmigrants thatflockedto theseshores
in the last hundredyearsfoundan embryonic nationalheritage
whichwas moldedlargelyby the earlierAnglo-Saxonsettlers, but
theyhave modified thatheritagein considerable degreeas the di-
verseracial,religious,and culturalelementsparticipating in this
massmovement foundfoothold in thewidelyscatteredcommunities
ofournation.
During the period of the most rapid industrialexpansion of the
United States an ever deepening cleavage developed between the
statusofthosewhohad comeearlier,
mostlyfromwestern
andnorth-
and be
ernEurope, whocameto knownas the"old immigrants," and
thosewho came later,fromeasternand southernEurope,or the
"'newimmigrants."By I930 the"newimmigrants" ex-
substantially

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 MORALEAND MINORITYGROUPS 4I7

ceededthe"old immigrants" innumber.Ofourwhitepopulation to-

day, about fortymillionare eitherforeign-born or the childrenof
immigrants, and of theseabout one-sixthare German,one-eighth
Italian, and morethan one-fifth fromthe Slavic countries.The
countryoforigin,however, is relevantforourpurposeonlybecause
it indicatesthe potentialmass which,by language,traditions, or
sentiment, may be subjectto influence fromthe mother-country,
especiallyin thoseinstanceswhere,as is the case amongthe Ger-
mansand theItalians,themother-country has adoptedan extended
conception ofnationality.It is bynomeansto be inferred,
however,
thattheloyaltiesoftheseimmigrants, and particularly
oftheirchil-
dren,shouldbe tied up to any greatextentwiththeircountryof
origin.The recentalienregistration indicatedthattherewereless
thanfivemillionimmigrants, includingminors,whohad notas yet
achievedthestatusofcitizens,althoughoverone-third ofthisnum-
berhad takenstepsin thatdirection.The proportion ofourwhite
population that is native-born(77.8 per cent in I930) is increasing,
as is theproportion thatis native-bornofnativeparentage(57.I per
centin 1930), whichmayindicatethatwiththerelativecessationof
immigration andwiththeprogress ofintermarriageand assimilation
we are beingweldedintoa morehomogeneous nationalbody.
Our approximately thirteenmillionNegroes,constituting about
one-tenth (and to date a constantlydeclining
proportion)ofour to-
tal population,have becomehighlydifferentiated in status and
widelydispersedin settlement in recentyears.Perhapsmorethan
the immigrants, however,the Negro,by virtueofhis racialmarks
and hishistorical positionin Americansociety,has beensubjectto
the disadvantagedstatusof a minority. The same appliesto the
Orientaland,to a lesserdegree,totheMexican.It appliesalsoto the
residents ofand immigrants fromouroverseaspossessions.
Asidefromtheracialandnationalstocks,wemustconsider among
theminority peoplesin theUnitedStatesthosewhoaresetapartby
religiousdifferencesfromthedominant group.Thisincludesapprox-
imatelytwenty-two millionCatholics,fourand one-halfmillion
Jews,and certainsectssuchas theQuakers,theMormons, theMen-
nonites,and Jehovah'sWitnesses.We neednotherebe particularly
concerned withthequasi-minority statusofpeoplesfromour"cul-

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 4I8 THE AMERICANJOURNAL
OF SOCIOLOGY

turalislands,"suchas thesouthern
highlanders
andthe"Cajuns" of
Louisiana.'
II. MINORITY GROUPS AND NATIONAL SOLIDARITY
The mereco-existence in the countryof a varietyofracial,na-
tional,cultural, and religiousgroupswouldnot be relevantto the
questionofnationalmoraleunlessthesegroupscouldbe presumed
eitherto obstructthenationalobjectivesorto requirespecialtreat-
mentto inducethemto participatewholeheartedly in the defense
effort.It is pertinent, therefore,to inquireinto the statusof our
minorities in so faras thisinvolvesactual or potentialobstaclesto
nationalunity.
Withtheexceptionofsuchcriticalperiodsas severedepressions
and warsthetrendin thiscountryhas beenforoneminority group
afteranotherto blenditsspecialcharacteristics withthenationas a
whole,to shedits closelyknitinternalorganization and at leastits
outwardpeculiarities, to enjoyexpandingopportunities, to risein
status,and to gainacceptance.The presentcrisisgivesriseto the
apprehension that this trendmightbe reversed,in part because
minorities are seenas a potentialthreatto nationalunity.
The imposingsize ofsomeoftheseminority groups-suchas the
Negroes,forinstance-wouldnot of itselfbe a potentialdivisive
forcein our nationallifeif therewerenot at the same timedense
concentrations ofsuchgroupsinspecific areas,as is thecaseespecial-
lyinourgreatcities.The spatialconcentration ofminority groupsis
reinforced by and in turnfacilitatesthe social organization of the
members, as witnessed bytheemergence ofseparatereligious, educa-
tional,economic,fraternal, and convivialvoluntaryassociations
amongthem.Theirimportance as forcesinmaintaining theseparate
identity and solidarity oftheminority groupon a local scaleis often
appreciableand maybe enhancedby thefederation oflocal unions,
lodges,clubs,and associationsinto nation-wide bodies whichare
I There are, of course,othersectionsof our populationbearingat least some of the

marks of minoritygroups whose differential position in society as it might affect

nationalmoraleis not sufficientlyapparentto warrantstretchingthe definitionof the
term"minorities"hereadopted.In some sensewomen,migratory workers, slumdwellers,
share croppers,and communists,among others,fall into thiscategory.A discussionof
the moraleaspects of such groupsis manifestlybeyond the scope of this paper.

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 419

capableofexercising effective controlovergreatnumbers, maintain

thegroup'scapacityforcollectiveaction,and cultivategroupsenti-
mentsand attitudestowardnationalissuesto an extentwherethey
approximate politicalblocs.2
Whenwe consider,moreover, that substantialgroupsof immi-
grantsareunabletoreadEnglish,wehavethefurther likelihoodthat
theminority groupswillbe exposedandperhapssusceptible to news
and propagandapurveyedby theforeign-language press-and, con-
versely,inaccessibleto themediaofcommunication ofthenationat
large. A factoroperating in a similardirection
is theinabilityon the
part of someimmigrants to speak and understand English,which
circumscribes theirrangeof communication and may make them
dependentuponforeign-language radioprograms, churchservices,
and otherformsof oral communication, and whichmay appear,
thoughonlyinisolatedinstances, as a probleminthearmedforcesof
theUnitedStates.
Thusthefactthata largeproportion ofthenewerimmigrants are
concentrated in greaturbancenters,arepredominantly Catholicin
and are at the same timeofPolish,Italian,or
religiousaffiliation,
Irishnationaloriginproducesa broaderbasisforsocialcohesiveness
thanis to be foundamongsomeof the olderimmigrants who are
morewidelydispersed,affiliated witha varietyof denominations,
and ofheterogeneous nationalorigin.The sameappliesto thelarge
Negro,Jewish,Oriental,and Mexicansettlements in thiscountry.
Moreover, inall oftheaboveinstancesinternal groupsolidarity may
draw considerableadditionalstrength fromthe pre-existing prej-
udicestowardthesegroupson thepartofthepopulationat large,
whichconsignsthemembersoftheseminority groupsto an inferior
social status,concentrates themintorestricted occupationalcate-
gories,and reducestheirchancesofimproving themselves as indi-
vidualsto suchan extentthattheymaycometo feelthattheyhave
a commonbondarisingout ofpersecution.
Whenany specialcategoryin thepopulationis subordinated to
2 Inthis connectionit is encouragingto note that the valuable data in the filesof
the Division of Alien Registrationwill give us, whenproperlyanalyzed,the mostade-
quate picturewe have ever had of the voluntaryassociationsflourishing among eth-
nic groupsin the United States.

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420 THE AMERICANJOURNAL
OF SOCIOLOGY

therestfora considerable period,especiallyifthegroupso singled

outhasotherbasesofcohesion, whenitis concentrated inlargenum-
bersin a definitearea,whenit is raciallyor culturally visible,when
it is engagedin intensecompetition withthe dominantgroup,and
whenitseducationallevelis rising,we mayexpectgroupconscious-
nessto emergeand eventuallyan overtstruggleforrecognition to
takeplace. Thisis clearlythecasein theNegroandto a largeextent
in theJew.The disillusionment whichtheNegroexperienced after
thefirstWorldWar,coupledwiththefrustration ofhisaspirations
forfuller participationinthedemocratic orderthatwas tofollowthe
war-in which,despitediscriminatory treatment, he had partici-
patedwithgreatdevotion-accentuated hisraceconsciousness and
gave new impetusto racialistmovements amongbroadmassesof
Negroeswhohad hitherto beenimmuneto them.Similarly, there-
vival ofvirulentanti-Semitism and persecution was a factorin the
spreadof ZionismamongmanyJewishgroupswho wereformerly
deafto theappealsofJewishnationalistic movements.
The nativeAmericansthemselves have contributed to the per-
petuationof cleavagesby periodicoutburstsofxenophobiain the
formof racialismand anti-alienism. Even whensuch movements
ebbed,the tendencywas widespreadto ascribestereotyped char-
acteristicsto certainminoritygroups,thusinhibiting theindividua-
tionofthemembers.Even theAmericanization movement in some
ofitsphasesappearsinretrospect to havehad consequences adverse
to nationalunity.In attempting to counteractthe nativisticdoc-
trinethatan unbridgeable chasmdividesthetrue,native-white, old
Americans fromthemongrel, unassimilable late-comers, onewingof
theAmericanization movement soughtto converttheimmigrant as
speedilyas possibleto thecultureoftheNew Worldwiththeresult,
in a numberofinstances,thatthereverseoftheanticipatedeffect
was broughtaboutand theimmigrant withdrew all themorecom-
pletelyintotheshellofhisself-sufficient,
isolated,ethniccommunity.
The morehumaneAmericanizers of a generationago, farfrom
joininginthisclamor,wereinsisting thatthenewcomer be protected
againstthepressures thatwouldlead himto giveup hisold cultural
heritagetoo abruptly.In its moreextremeand sentimental form
thispolicy,thoughunintentionally, gave supportto a view of the

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 42I

Americannationas splinteredinto countlessisolatedfragments,

each ofwhichembodiescertainpreciousculturalvalueswhichmust
be preserved evenat thecostofreducingthecountry to virtualim-
potencein thedefenseofitsexistence.Thisapproachto Americani-
zation,togetherwiththe highevaluationof immigrant heritages
withwhichit was associated,remaineddominantin thiscountry
untiltheinternational crisisrevivedtheproblemin a newcontext.
Thus the conceptionofAmericanization as a slow,gradual,spon-
taneousinterpenetration ofimmigrant and nativegroupsand their
cultureshas had to be subjectedto seriousreconsideration in the
lightoftheNazi and Fascist policyto retaincontrolover their na-
tionalsinforeign countries andtousethemas spearheadsofpenetra-
tionand conquestabroad. In the face of the propagandaand or-
ganizationalcampaignsof the totalitariannations,even the most
liberalwingsoftheAmericanization movement havebeenforcedto
ask whether ourtraditional tolerantattitudetowardtheimnmigrant
could be maintainedwithoutseriouslyundermining our national
solidarity.
Thus, to all of thesefactorspromoting cleavagetherehas been
added anotherprovidedby theparent-countries themselves.They
have been diligently and oftencovertlyat workto set up newor-
ganizationsin thiscountryand to transform old onesto tie theim-
migrant to themilitantand,fromthestandpoint ofAmericaninter-
ests,subversivemovements whichare controlled and financedby
foreign governments or by theiragenciesestablishedforthatpur-
pose. Theseorganizations have madetheirappealnotonlyto their
nationalsin this countrybut also to thosewho have alreadyac-
quiredAmericancitizenship and to the remotedescendantsof the
as In
immigrants well. fact,theyhave beenattempting to consoli-
date all ofthevariousgroupswhosegrievancescouldbe exploited
bypropagandato createinthemattitudesofapathytowardnational
defense, suspiciontowardothers,andeventhedisposition to affiliate
themselves withmovements designedto defeatouravowednational
policy.
Ever sincethefirstWorldWar theforeign-language pressin the
UnitedStateshas been steadilydeclining.Its potentialpublichas
shrunken in numbers
becauseofthevirtualcessationofrecruitment

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422 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

fromabroadand theassimilation oftheimmigrants remaining here.

The Nazi and Fascistgovernments, however, havingdiscovered its
in
uses as a propagandamedium,have sundryand oftendevious
waysgivencertainpapersa newlease on life.3
Since one of the chiefweaponsemployedby the Nazis in the
softening-up ofothercountries is theideologyofrace,and sincethe
racialmyth has beenone oftheir mostpotentinstruments ofpolitical
revolution, it is pertinenttoinquireintotheprospectsoftheaccept-
ance oftheNazi racialdoctrines in theUnitedStates.4One would
suspectthatin a country as diversein itsracialand ethniccomposi-
tionas is theUnitedStatesracismcouldfindonlya negligible num-
ber of followers.The UnitedStates has had its anti-Negro, anti-
alien,anti-Catholic, anti-Semitic, and anti-Oriental movements be-
fore.They have risenand declinedin accordancewiththemagni-
tudeofourinternal socialproblems.Giventhebackground oflatent
feelings ofracial,ethnic,and religious prejudiceand conflicts, how-
ever,we mayexpectthetensionsbetweenthedominant groupsand
minorities and betweendifferent minorities themselves to becomeat
least temporarily moreacute. Underconditions ofadversitytoler-
ance is likelyto giveway to blindhatred,especiallyifarousedand
directedby organizedpropaganda.
The propagandaand organizational campaignof the Nazis and
Fascistsamongthe Germanand Italian immigrants in the United
Stateshas soughtto inspirenotonlyloyaltyto and enthusiasm for
theNazi and Fascistregimes butalsoa senseofpersecution designed
todevelopattitudescharacteristic ofmembers ofself-conscious,
mili-
tantminority groupswhowouldultimately joinwithothersections
oftheAmerican populationharboring similargrievances intopower-
fulbodieswhich,withorwithouttheaid ofan invasionfromabroad,
wouldbringabout the destruction of our democraticinstitutions.
3 The foreign-language radio broadcastsmay be presumedto have been a factorin
and to have compensatedin some degreeforthe reducedinfluenceof the immigrant
newspaper. However, because of the nature and controlover radio in this country,
it is less susceptiblethan the pressto directionfromabroad and lendsitselfless readily
to exploitationin behalfof causes contraryto public policy.
4 Whereasformerly the immigrantretainedand was even encouragedto maintain
culturalties with his formercountrymen, the Nazi and Fascist programis to appeal
to the tie of blood.

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 MORALEAND MINORITYGROUPS 423

Our ownunsolvedproblems,tensions,and conflicts are thusto be

exploitedforthepurposeofstimulating and fostering disunitylead-
ingto internal paralysisand preparing us fora changein oursocial,
economic, andpoliticalsystemwhichwouldbe equivalentto a blood-
lessvictoryofNazidom.
Nazi propagandahas set in motionsubtleprograms, notonlyto
makeourminorities self-conscious and to impregnate themwithan
oppression psychosis, butalso to setoneminority againsttheother:
GentilesagainstJews,ProtestantsagainstCatholics,and whites
againstNegroes.Thiscanbe frustrated onlyifthenationas a whole
will seek to remedythe imperfections of democracyupon which
minority sentiments thriveand ifeachminority groupwillrecognize
thatan attackon oneundermines thesecurity and aspirationsofall.
Besidesthefactorsmakingforthereluctance oftheminorities to
be assimilated, it is also necessaryto considerthereadinessofthe
dominantgroupsto assimilatethe minorities. In periodsof pros-
perityandpeacewearelikelyto overestimate ournationalunityand
to underrate thepowerofintolerance movements, so thatwhenwe
facedepression and warwe are takenaback by theextentto which
internaldivision,mutual suspicion,and hate can be cultivated
amongthosewhosepoweror securityis threatenedor who have
failedto achievethe fullstatusto whichtheyfeltthemselves en-
titled.Suchelements in thedominant grouparereceptive topropa-
gandawhichreminds themthat,sincetheybelongto the"superior"
race,are "old settlers,"and havebeenorare threatened withbeing
deprivedof theirprivilegesby an "inferior" groupoflate-comers,
theymustasserttheirprerogatives ofdominance.Themostcommon
basisofsuchmasssentiments is tolay theblameforthefailure, frus-
tration,insecurity, and unhappiness ofthedominantgroupon the
cunningand unfairness of a minority group. For thosewho feel
themselves threatened in the continuedenjoymentof theirpower
and securitya minority servesas a convenientscapegoattoward
whichmass indignation can be diverted.Similarly, forthosewho
havebeenfrustrated in theirambitions orwhohavealreadybecome
declassed,theminority groupfurnishes a rationalizationoftheirown
inadequaciesandan objecttowardwhichtheycanreleasetheirpent-
up emotional drivesforaggressive self-assertion.Ifyouyourself can-

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424 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

notrise,youmayseekto compensate byputtingdownsomeoneelse

whohas risen.Our ownhistoryofintolerance in theformofanti-
Negro,anti-alien,and anti-Oriental movementsgives ample evi-
denceofthebitterness and ferocity withwhich,in periodsof con-
tractingeconomicopportunity and threatening insecurity, the mi-
noritieswhichhavebeenmostsuccessful in thecompetitive struggle
and in theiradaptationto Americanlifehavebeentreatedby those
who,despiteinitialadvantages,havelaggedin theclimbto wealth,
prestige,and powerorwho,oncehavinghad them,havelostthem.
Onlyin thisway can we fullyunderstand whythe "poorwhites"
insistso vehemently upontheir"racialsuperiority" overthemore
successfulNegroesand whysomeof the olderAmericansembrace
nativisticdoctrineswitha readinessroughly proportionalto thede-
greein whichtheyhave alreadybeen outstripped by the laterar-
rivals.Whilethealienand theNegroareberatedfortheirfailureto
assimilate,theyareat thesametimeand by thesamepeopledenied
the opportunities forfullparticipationin Americanlife.We may
expectthelatentantipathies betweendifferent sectionsofourpeople
to becomeovertas theexistingeconomic, prestige, and powerrela-
tionshipsbecomedisturbed; and we mayexpectthelinesseparating
thesegroupsto hardenas thesetemporary disturbances ofthestatus
quo tendto becomechronic.5
Havingreviewedthefactors makingforinterethnic cleavages,itis
appropriate to pointout some ofthe elements in ourpresentsitua-
5To counteractthe efforts inspiredby foreigngovernments or theiragentsto under-
mine our national unity,ill-considered,randommeasureshave been resortedto, de-
signedto controlimmigrantgroupsby deprivingthemof the freedomsordinarilyen-
joyed by residentsof the United States and subjectingthemto officialand unofficial
discrimination.Special registrationand surveillance,suppressionor rigid controlof
the foreign-language of freedomof occupationalchoice,
press and schools,restrictions
exclusionfromthe benefitsofreliefand publicwelfareservices,are amongthelocal and
even nationallegislativemeasuresthathave been seriouslyadvanced. Some wouldeven
go as faras to treatnaturalizedcitizensas permanentaliens and curb theirprivileges
to an extentwhichwould virtuallyreducethemto citizensofinferiorgrade. In certain
highlyspecializedoccupationsin essentialdefenseindustriesit has recentlybeen found
thatsomeofthekey skilledjobs have been to a disproportionate extentheldby persons
whose national originmakes themsuspect. Certain othergroups,the Negroesin par-
ticular,because of being discriminatedagainst in many occupationalfields(including
the armyand navy) and excludedfrommany unions,have everyreason to develop a
persecutioncomplex.

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 425

tionwhichpromoteunityamongourethnicgroups.Paradoxicalas
it mayseem,theriseofnaziismand fascismabroadhas itselfserved
as a unifying
influenceinAmerican life.Anyoneacquaintedwiththe
lifeinAmericaofthegreatimmigrant coloniescantestify to thefact
thatthe riseofthe totalitarian governments in Europecame as a
severeshockand thatthetacticsofthesegovernments werehumili-
atingand distastefulto vast sectionsof the immigrants and their
descendantshere. Many of the mostoutspokenenemiesofHitler
and Mussoliniareto be foundamongtheGermanand Italianimmi-
grantsin theUnitedStates. Someofthemhave evengoneso faras
to questionthedesirabilityofperpetuating thepredictatorial herit-
agesoftheirmother-countries, lestbymaintaining themtheirloyal-
tytoAmericamightbe calledintoquestionandtheirparticipation in
Old Worldculturalactivitiesbe misinterpreted as an act ofidentifi-
cationwiththepresently dominant regimes intheirrespective coun-
triesoforigin.
To thosesectionsoftheold immigrant coloniesthatstandopenly
alignedin oppositionto thepoliciesofthedictatorships, theremust
be addedtherecentaccretions consisting ofthosewhohavefledfrom
thepersecution theyhave suffered at thehandsofthetotalitarians
and thoselargegroupsofimmigrants whosecountries oforiginhave
recentlybeenconqueredbytheAxispowers.The resentment which
particularlytheselattergroupsfeel towardnaziismand fascism
makesthemall the morefervidsupporters of ourformofgovern-
mentand ourpresentnationalpolicy.In fact,aliensgenerally, like
newconverts, arelikelyto outdothenativesintheirmanifestation of
patriotismwhentheopportunity is offered.This shouldnotbe dis-
missedas a mereprotective reaction.6
The propagandafromabroadwhichis specifically directedtoward
6As duringand immediatelyfollowingthe firstWorld War a numberof renascent
European minorities, includingthe Czechs,thePoles, and theIrish,had drawnupon the
moraland materialsupportoftheirrespectiveformercompatriotsin the UnitedStates,
so today the conquerednationsof Europe may well look to the immigrantstheyhave
sent to these shoresto vitalize the struggleto regaintheirfreedomfromNazi domina-
tion. While thiswill,of course,add to our strengthin our national defenseeffort, it
may also lead to a less rationalformulation of our national policy,especiallyour war
and peace aims, in the attemptnot to offendthe nationalaspirationsof thesevarious
conqueredcountriesand in the furthereffortto minimizethe conflictbetweenthese
various groupshere.

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426 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

theUnitedStatesis likelyto makeit difficultat timesto reconcile

our concernabout nationalunityand defensewithourtraditional
laissezfairepolicytowardthevariedracialand culturalgroupsstill
persisting,oftenin a segregated
form,amongus. It is a regrettable
factthatpreciselywhenwe are mostconcerned aboutweldingour
diversepeoplesintoa unifiednationalbodyas speedilyas possible
andwithoutcoercion, wemustreckonwiththesuspicionwithwhich
in timeofcrisiseveryseparatelyidentifiablegroupis regarded.On
the one hand,the presentcrisismay serveas a solventof racial,
ethnic,and religiousdifferences,
but,on theotherhand,it maygive
riseto the aggravationof tensionsand of latentantagonisms and
resultinwidespreadand demoralizing witch-hunting. The extentto
whichit willbe moreof one thanthe otherwilldependupon our
strategyforbuildingnationalmorale.
III. THE STRATEGY OF MORALE-BUILDING
A primeelementinmorale7 is theidentification
oftheindividual
withthecollectiveenterprise. A primitivegroupora smallcompact
community findslittleneedtogeneratethissenseofidentificationon
thepartofitsmembersartificially. Sucha groupcan relyuponan
unbroken traditionrootedintheimmemorial past,sustainedbyday-
to-dayintimatecontactamongthe members,all of whomknow
everythingworthknowingaboutoneanother,tiedtogether as they
are by bondsofkinshipand mutualdependence whosestrength has
beentestedbyinnumerable crises.Suchprimitivegroups,moreover,
havetheirfixedsymbolsendowedwithpowerto evokeloyaltiesand
theirsacredritualsand ceremonies throughwhichthe appropriate
formsofbehaviorexpectedofeach individualin criticalsituations
are thoroughlyand periodicallyrehearsed.Finally,the primitive
groupis weldedintoa solidmassbecauseit cultivatesan in-group
7 By "morale" we mean that elementin collectiveaction whichenables the partici-
pants to persistin theirdetermination to achieve theircollectivepurpose. Morale sup-
plies the collectivewill to see an action throughuntilthe objectiveis reached. We as-
cribe moraleto a groupto the extentthat it maintainsthis steadfastnessof purpose,
maintainsits solidarity,its integrity, and its will to victoryeven in the face of adver-
sity. Morale should be distinguishedfromespritde corps,or collectiveenthusiasm,
which,while it may be conduciveto moraleis not identicalwithit, but is as different
fromit as highspiritednessand evanescententhusiasmdiffer fromquiet enduranceand
undemonstrative, persistent,imperturbableadherenceto a cause.

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 427

feelingwiththecorrelative out-group attitudesofsuspicionandhos-

tilitytowardnonmembers, becauseall outsidersare ipsofactoene-
miesorpotentialenemies.
We rightly takeit forgrantedthatthereare certainessentialele-
mentswhichare theprerequisites foreffective collectiveactionand
forenduringgroupwill. As in the military forcesgood and ample
food,clothing, andshelter, adequateweapons,thorough training, the
instillingofan unflinching senseofduty,inspiring leadership, clear
objectivescontributeto morale,so in civilianactivitythe avail-
abilityof the essentialsoflife,leadershipthatinspiresconfidence,
purposesthatare clear-cutareamongtheelements conduciveto the
capacityofa groupto act collectively. Afterall, bothsoldiersand
civiliansmustlivebeforetheycan liveforhighpurposes.Hence,in
ouranalysisofmorale,we mustpositas an essentialprerequisite a
modicumofphysicalwell-being on thepartofall, coupledwiththe
conviction on thepartofthosewhomustmakeextraordinary sacri-
ficesthatprivations arenecessary andwouldbe willingly enduredby
all theothermembers ofthegrouptotheextentoftheirability.But
it shouldnotbe inferred thatmerewell-being or satietyalwaysgo
towardbuildingmorale.In fact,as sucha historic caseas thatofthe
SocietyofJesusshows,a groupinfusedwitha sufficiently powerful
crusading spiritmayactuallyuse personalprivationand sacrifice as
a leadinginstrument in morale-building.
Whiletheseprerequisites formoralemustexistin everygroup,
theyare notsufficient to maintainmoraleat a highlevel. It is one
thingto evokemorale,but it may be quite anotherto sustainit.
Thisis especiallytruebecauseofthefactthatmoralecountsmostin
timeof crisis,and in timeof crisisno one can enjoyfullpersonal
security; norcanwe intimeofcrisisassureeitherthearmedforcesor
thecivilianpopulationofthatsamehighlevelofhealth,welfare, and
security to whichwe mayhave accustomedthemin timesofpeace.
A peopleaccustomedto a lowstandardofliving,to rigidregimenta-
tion,to a minimum ofpersonalsecurity, is lesslikelyto see inwara
catastrophe whichthreatens thesevalues,forwarrepresents a less
abrupttransition fromtheordinary routinesand levelsoflivingfor
sucha peoplethanit doesfora peoplelikeourown.
One oftheessentialconditions ofhighmoraleis a set ofsettled

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428 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

convictions;to makegreatsacrifices willinglya groupmusthave an

unambiguouscause forwhichto struggle.They mustbe imbued
withthefeelingthattheircause is right,thatsomething desirable
willresultor something undesirable willbe abolishedthrough their
collectiveeffort. Aboveall, theymusthave theabidingbeliefthat
theircause can and willbe realized.Finally,theymusthave indi-
viduallya stakeinthecommon enterprise.To bringaboutthissense
ofa cause-and whatis more,thissenseofcomnmon participationin
a worth-while cause-is peculiarlydifficult underthe conditions
whichournationconfronts in manyre-
today. It is moredifficult
spectsthanit is in the case of ourmostlikelyenemy,becausethe
UnitedStatesis notonlya vastnationcomprising manydiversesec-
tions,each withits ownlocal and regionaloutlook,but we are also
a nationofmanypeoples,each withitsownpeculiarculturaltradi-
tionsandheritages.Raciallyandethnically wearenotas yetonebut
many,and forlongwe have pursueda domesticlaissezfairepolicy
tolerantofthediverseculturalheritages ofthemanystrainsthatare
ultimately to be mergedin themelting pot ofracesand peoplesand
culturesthatis to constitutetheUnitedStatesofthefuture.While
thisimpliescertainweaknesses,it may also becomean elementof
strength, forhereno singleraceand cultureis universallyrecognized
as the standardwithreference to whichall the othersare to be
judged.
Our countryfacesa peculiarproblemin thepresentwaras con-
trastedwiththesituationofourpotentialenemiesprecisely because
ofits democratic traditions.In ourordinary peacetimepursuitswe
demandlittleself-discipline, put a greatpremiumuponindividual
liberty,toleratea varietyofprejudices,and encouragea maximum
ofcriticism.Whatevermaybe said aboutthelong-time advantages
ofan armyoffreemenas overagainstan armyofslaves,it mustbe
admittedthattheregimen ofthearmedforcesrequiresa highdegree
ofdisciplineand a subordination oftheindividualto his superiors.
We havetheimportant taskofreconciling orderand discipline
with
freedom and individualism,and,whatis moreimportant, we must
somehowreconcilediversityof background,way of life,mutual
suspicion,and antipathiesbetweengroupswithunityofpurposeand
centralizationofauthority.

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 429

Moraleina democracy maybe moredifficulttodevelopthaninan

autocracy,but in theend it is lessfragileand morerobust.At any
rate,in a democracy, wherethedecisionsoftheleadersmustbe sus-
tainedby theuncoercedconsensusofthecitizen,it is possibleto get
reliableaccountsofthestateofmoraleat anygivenmoment.Realiz-
ing that moraleis a productof slow growth,the questionarises
whetherwe have timeto developit. Knowingthatsuspicion,dis-
sension,and divisionare thesupremepsychological weaponsofour
enemy,it behoovesus to weldout ofthismassofourdiverse,indi-
vidualisticcitizenry a compactunifiedbodyofmenand womenwho
havea commonstakeinvalues,ofwhichtheywereoblivious,which
theytookforgranteduntiltheywerethreatened and untiltheysaw
themdisappearin nationafternation.
The diversity oforiginofourpeople,ifproperly understood,can
becomeoneofthegreatestofmorale-building factorsin theUnited
States. It is almostcertaintoguardus againstthetendency to think
of ourselvesas a superiorrace or to identify our nationwiththe
Anglo-Saxon peoples,forwe couldnotdo so withoutdoingviolence
to theoriginsofa substantial proportionofourpopulation.It would
be a sad errorto believethatbecausetheAnglo-Saxon peoplesand
theirinstitutions weredominantwhenthe nationwas youngwe
tooaretodayan Anglo-Saxon peopleand thatthoseofthatstockare
by virtueofthatfacta privileged or superiorgroup.Moreover,in
theheterogeneous composition ofournationalculturalcomplex,we
havepotentially thebroadestpossiblebase forthedevelopment ofa
civilizationwhichmorenearlythanany otherin the worldwould
embraceall theothers.
The accentuation ofourdifferences,however, is likelyto become
one of the most insidiousfactorsin the sappingof our national
strength, forwe cannotmobilizeourfullpotentialforceas a nation
to fightagainsta real enemywithoutif we must dissipateour
strength and divertourpassionstowardan imaginary enemywithin.
By allowing racism and anti-alienismto flourishwe will deflectour
attentionfromthoserecruiting
stationsofthe"fifthcolumn"which
arefarmoredangerous thanourracialminoritiesand ourimmigrant
groups. Grantingthat thereare certainalien groupswhichhave
been successfully
propagandizedby foreigngovernments,we must

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430 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

notforgetthattherearemanymore,especiallythosewhosemother-
countries
havebecomethevictimsofaggression, whonowmorethan
everareimmuneto thewilesofNazi propaganda.We needto realize
thatthenonacceptance ofcertainsectionsofourpeopleby theolder
and whiterAmericanscauses large masseswho wish to be good
Americansto conceiveof themselvesas outsidersand inferiors,
woundstheirpride,undermines theirself-respect,
putsthemon the
defensivewithreference to theiroriginandheritage, and thusplaces
seriousobstaclesin the path of theiridentification with the na-
tion'seffortand significantlyreducestheircontribution ofskilland
talent.We cannot,moreover, permitthosewhosesecurity is threat-
enedand whohavebecomehysterical withfearto exploitthiscrisis
forsinglingoutthealien,theNegro,and othersofminority statusas
scapegoatstobeartheblameforthemanyills,thefrictions, thedivi-
sions,and thesacrifices whichconfront us in a troubledworld.Con-
sideringthe enemywe are fighting againstand the doctrinesthat
enemyespouses,we as a country that so obviouslyis of mongrel
originsurelycannotembracehis doctrineor followhis policiesby
assertingtheprerogatives ofa superiorrace or by recognizing citi-
zensofinferior grade.
The openlypro-Naziand pro-Fascistgroupsoperatingin this
countryare not our greatestdanger,fortheyare knownand can
easilybe dealtwith.Thereis anxietyabout thosewho,whilepro-
fessingtheirloyalty,are suspiciousof everyoneelse and have a
vagueapprehension abouttheloyaltyofthosewithwhomtheyare
not familiarand whomtheydo not understandbut of whoseex-
istencetheyhaveonlyrecently becomeawarebecausehitherto they
werealienslivingin a separateworld.To tellthealienthathe must
notspeakoutopenlybecausehe is likelyto be suspectorbecausehe
doesnotbelong,to tellhimto lie lowand let thetrueAmericans do
him
thespeakingand theleading,is to impress withthefeelingthat
hisparticipationin thecommonenterprise is notwanted.This can
resultonlyin eitherparalyzinghis efforts or drivinghimintothe
armsoftheenemy.
ThefeelingofanxietyamongtheoldAmericans is understandable.
They are not onlybecomingawareof the distancethat separates
themfromtheimmigrants and theotherminorities buttheyarealso

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 43I

experiencinga sense of insecurity because whentheydo get ac-

quaintedwiththemtheydiscoverthat Americais no longerthe
Americathatwas theirs.It is theseold Americans, consequently,
whofindit on thewholemorecongenialto embracethedoctrines of
the elite,whichlendthemselves readilyto adaptationby theNazi
doctrines infiltrating
fromabroad,thantheminority peoplesthem-
selves.Thisis likelyto makethemimpatient withanyeffort to win
overtheimmigrant and theNegro,amongothers,and predisposes
themto an acceptanceofstrongmedicine.
Whenwe confront thechargethatwe are discriminating against
certainsectionsof our people on racial, religious,and cultural
grounds,we are inclinedto disposeof thesechargesby promising
thatwhenthe crisisis overwe willmakeappropriate amends.We
may hope thusto elicitimmediateloyaltyand postponeremedial
action untilsome indefinite futuredate, only to forgetabout it
promptly whenthecrisisis over. Thus,duringthelastwar,wewere
madekeenlyawareofourdiscriminatory practicesagainsttheNe-
gro,but whenthewarwas overwe complacently sankback again
If
intothesmugattitudeoflaissezfaire. thecurrent about
literature
theNegroin thedefenseprogramis anyindexofwhatis happening
in manyplacesin ourcountry, including ourarmedforces,thisdis-
appointing experience ofthelast warmaybe said to be one ofthe
factorswhichmakestheNegroskepticalabouthisstakein ourna-
tionalenterprise.It is an attitudewhichcan easilybe exploitedby
thosewhomakeit theirbusinessto sow and cultivatetheseedsof
discontent.It maywellbe true,as GeneralHersheyrecently put it
whenconfronted withthechargethatthearmywas practicing Jim
Crowism, thatthearmydid notmakeourracialattitudesbut can
onlytakethemas it findsthem.But it mayalso be worthconsider-
ingthatin a timeofnationalcrisis,suchas thepresent,massatti-
tudesaremorefluidthanordinarily and thatproblemswhichcould
not ordinarily be touchedcan now be boldlyattacked.Whenthe
clamorfornationalintegration is as loud as it is today,and resent-
mentagainstHitleriandoctrinesis as pronouncedas it is, we do,
perhaps,have an opportunity to acceleratethetrendtowardfuller
participationon an equal footing ofall ofourpeoplein ournational
life.

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432 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

The experience ofthelast war,especiallyin connection withthe

activitiesof the Committeeon Public Information whichare just
nowcomingto light,shouldhave taughtus that,whilesomeofour
minorities arelikelytobecomeseriousmenacestonationalunityand
to thenationaleffort, theycanalso be usedconstructively to height-
en nationalmoraleand to increaseourcapacityforcollectiveaction
on a nationalscale. Amongthelessonsthatwe have learnedis, or
shouldbe, that the greaterpart of theseminorities have a direct
stakein ournationalenterprise, thattheydo wantto giveoftheir
resourcesand theirenthusiasm, thattheydo wanttheirgroupsto
have highmorale,thattheycan be solidified intocollaborative ac-
tionwiththenationas a wholemoreeffectively through theirown
leadersthanthrough outsiders,and thatthemoretheyunderstand,
approve,and shareournationalobjectivesthemorethoroughly do
theydevotethemselves to theirattainment.
These experiences have also taughtus that one of the greatest
dangersofourtreatment ofminoritiesinsucha crisisis thatofindis-
criminate persecution and suppression.Amongthegravestmistakes
wemadeduringthelastwarwastheerrorofdisrupting eventhepro-
Americanassociationsofnationalsofenemycountries and theper-
secutionofloyalimmigrants merelybecauseoftheirnationalorigin.
We mightlearnthistimealso to preventthetendency onthepartof
someelementsin thesexninority groupsto take advantageof the
warto settleold quarrelsofa factionalsortor ofa personalsortby
denouncing theirrivalsto thegovernment agencies.Thereis every
reasonto believethatin the presentcrisiswe may avoid someof
thesemistakes.
Thereis a dispositionin theUnitedStatesto attemptto weldour
peopleintoa unitby appealingto thepast-but likemostpeoples,
and perhapsmorethanmostpeoples,we have not had a common
past. It is true,ofcourse,thatwe perhapshave a longerand more
unbrokentraditionof freeinstitutions than any othernationon
earth-but,on theotherhand,largesectionsofourpeoplehavenot
sharedeitherinthattradition orinthefruitsofthattradition.They
have remainedmarginalpeopleswhostillspeakoftheolderAmeri-
cans as "they"whoenjoytheadvantagesofthesefreeinstitutions.
It wouldbe foolishto underestimate thesourcesofnationalsolidar-

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 MORALE AND MINORITY GROUPS 433

itythatlie in thepast. Man is in a veryreal sensea time-binding

animal.He doesnotlivemerelyby instinctand in thepresentbut
by thehabitshe has learnedand by hismemories ofwhathas gone
before.Ournoblestatedocuments, ourlaws,oursongs,ourart,our
symbols, ourslogans,ourepics,ourtraditions, ourhistory, ourherit-
age-all theseweldus intosomesortofunity,intoa nation.But
comparedwithsomeofthepoliticalunitsofEuropewe are young
and fragile.
The UnitedStatesis notmerelya territory, a politicalunit,and a
bodyoftraditions, but a promise.It is a promiseforall ofus but
especiallyforthosewho,whethertheycamehereto escapeoppres-
sionand povertyor to seekadventureand opportunity, have given
tothiscountry a strengthwhichliesintheverymotivesthatbrought
mostofus or ourancestorshere.The Americandreamgoesfarbe-
yondthefourfreedoms and acquiresnewmeaningwitheverynew
day. If it werenot a fluidand expandingidea, the manydiverse
peopleswho embraceit wouldhave difficulty in identifying them-
selveswithit as something real. Americais accomplishments, to be
sure;but it is largelyaspirations.Americais unfinished. Ourprin-
cipalsourceofnationalunityand strength, therefore,lieslessin the
past thanin thepresentand in thefuture.Americabelongsto the
future,and it is in thissensethatourminorities can sharewiththe
restofthepopulationa commonsetofobjectives.To theoldAmeri-
cansthesemaybe largelycomposedofaspirations forsecurity, but
to thenewAmericans theyshadeinthedirection ofkeepingopenthe
roadofopportunity. To oldand newaliketheymeana maximum of
personalfreedom and personaldignity.
If we can keep our imperfect realizationof thesevalues from
hardening, and ifwe can preventtheobviousfrustrations and dis-
advantagesof wide sectionsof our peoplefrombeingacceptedas
permanent, ifthosewhohave not as yet been fullyacceptedinto
thecommunity can becomeconvincedthatifnottheythenat least
theirchildren maybecomeso, thenourso-calledminorities willnot
be a threatto nationalmoralebut its chiefcontributing factor.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

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