PARTICLE PHYSICS

1. Alpha-Scattering experiment (or Geiger-Marsden experiment)

2. Nuclear model of the atom, Nuclide notation and Isotopes

3. Matter and Antimatter

4. Nature and characteristics of ionising radiation

5. Radioactive decay equations

6. Forces in the nucleus

7. Fundamental Particles

1. Alpha-Scattering experiment (or Geiger-Marsden experiment)

vacuum

thin gold foil

Alpha emitter travelling microscope

eyepiece coated with zinc sulphide

Alpha particles are incident on the gold foil in an evacuated vessel. Their paths are viewed
through a microscope and are as follows:

OBSERVATION :

gold atoms

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 1. Most of the a-particles pass through the foil undeflected.

2. A few of them are deflected through small angles of less than 90°.

3. Very few are deflected through large angles of up to 180° and their speed is almost
unchanged.

CONCLUSION :

The atom is made up mostly of empty space with a central massive and positive core called the
nucleus.

2. Nuclear model of the atom

The atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons with electrons orbiting in shells
around the nucleus.

: proton

: neutron

nucleus : electron

Particle Mass (u) Charge

proton 1 +e

neutron 1 0

electron 1/1822 -e

Note : In nuclear physics, the unit of mass used is the unified atomic mass unit (u).

1 u = 1.66 × 10-27 kg

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(a) Nuclide notation

1. Atomic number or proton number, Z :

It is the number of protons found in the nucleus.

2. Mass number or nucleon number, A :

It is the number of nucleons found in the nucleus.

Note : 1. A nucleon is a particle of the nucleus, i.e proton and neutron.

2. In nuclear physics, the term nuclide is used to denote the atom.

3. Neutron number, N :

It is the number of neutrons found in the nucleus.

A=Z+N

4. Nuclide notation :

A nuclide is represented as follows

"
!𝑋
where X is the atomic symbol of the element.

(b) Isotopes:

Isotopes are nuclides of the same element having the same proton number but different
mass number.

Hence, isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties.

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3. Matter and antimatter

Antimatter consists of antiparticles.

An antiparticle has the same mass but opposite charge to the corresponding particle.

For example, the positron (+e) is the antiparticle of the electron (-e). The antiproton (-p) is the
antiparticle of the proton (+p).

Note : When a particle collides with its antiparticle, the two particles annihilate each other to
produce gamma radiation.

4. Nature and characteristics of ionising radiation

Radioactivity is the term used to describe the spontaneous emission of radiation from radioactive
nuclides (called radioisotopes).

The three types of radiation emitted are a-particle, b-particle and g-rays. They are called ionising
radiation as they ionise the medium through which they travel.

Alpha particles are helium nuclei denoted by " "

!𝐻𝑒 or !𝛼

%
Beta-minus (b-) particles are electrons denoted by #$𝑒 whereas beta-plus (b+) particles are
%
positrons denoted by &$ 𝑒.
Gamma rays are energetic electromagnetic radiations.

Radiation Mass (u) speed charge Ionising Range in air Penetrating

strength property
up to
a 4 5 % of +2e Strong About 5 cm 1 mm paper
c
up to
b- (e) 1$ 90 % of -e Weak About 5 m 2 mm aluminium
1822
c
up to
b+ (e+) 1$ 90 % of +e Weak About 5 m 2 mm aluminium
1822
c

g 0 c 0 Very Several km 2 cm lead/several

weak metres concrete

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5. Radioactive decay equations

In all nuclear reactions, mass and charge are conserved through the conservation of mass
number and atomic number respectively.

Also, momentum and energy are conserved.

(i) Radioactive decays

1. Alpha decay

( (#"
'𝑋 → '#!𝑌 + "!𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

The parent nuclide is trans mutated into a daughter nuclide by emitting an alpha particle
and releasing energy (K.E of daughter nuclide and alpha particle).

Example :

!*" !*%
)!𝑈 → )%𝑇ℎ + "!𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Note : The alpha particles emitted from a particular radioactive nuclide all have the
same kinetic energy.

2. Beta decay

There are two kinds of beta-decay, namely b- and b+.

(i) b--decay

( ( %
'𝑋 → '&$𝑌 + #$𝑒 + 𝑣̅ + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

The parent nuclide is trans mutated into a daughter nuclide by emitting an electron and
an electron antineutrino (𝑣̅ ) (see section 7) as well as releasing energy (K.E of
daughter nuclide, electron and antineutrino).

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 Example:

!$" !$" %
+!𝑃𝑏 → +*𝐵𝑖 + #$𝑒 + 𝑣̅ + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

(ii) b+-decay

( (
'𝑋 → '#$𝑌 + %$𝑒 + 𝑣 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

The parent nuclide is trans mutated into a daughter nuclide by emitting a positron and
an electron neutrino (𝑣) (see section 7) as well as releasing energy (K.E of daughter
nuclide, positron and neutrino).

Example:

*% *%
$,𝑃 → $"𝑆𝑖 + %$𝑒 + 𝑣 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Note : 1. The beta particles emitted from a particular radioactive nuclide have a
continuous range of kinetic energies because neutrinos and antineutrinos
are also emitted.

2. Changes in the nucleus during beta decay

Overall, there is no change in mass number of the daughter nuclide. However,

(a) during b--decay, atomic number of the daughter nuclide increases by 1.

A neutron decays into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.

$
%𝑛 → $$𝑝 + %
#$𝑒 + 𝑣̅

(b) during b+-decay, atomic number of the daughter nuclide decreases by 1.

A proton decays to become a neutron, a positron and a neutrino.

$
$𝑝 → $%𝑛 + %
&$𝑒 + 𝑣

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 3. Gamma decay

When a gamma ray is emitted, there is no change in mass number or atomic number. Instead,
an excited parent nuclide emits a gamma photon to return to the ground state.

Example

!*+ !*"
)!𝑈 → )%𝑇ℎ
∗ + "!𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
The asterix sign indicates that the thorium isotope is unstable. It will de-excite by emitting a
gamma photon.

!*" ∗ !*"
)%𝑇ℎ → )%𝑇ℎ + 𝛾

(ii) Decay series

Sometimes a parent nuclide must undergo a series of decay as succeeding daughter

nuclides are unstable until a stable nuclide is reached. This is called a radioactive

They also keeps neutrons and

decay series.

6.
neutrons together
Forces in the nucleus

Protons inside the nucleus repel one another electrically. Thus, there must be a stronger force
keeping the protons together. Moreover, that same force keeps neutrons and protons together.

The short range force that keeps the nucleons together in the nucleus is called the
strong nuclear force.

7. Fundamental Particles

Protons, neutrons and electrons are not fundamental particles that make up matter.

Sub-atomic particles are grouped into two families of fundamental particles which are

(i) quarks,

(ii) leptons.

Hadrons are made up of quarks.

Short range- existing 7

within the nucleus only

(i) Quark model and hadrons

(a) Types or ‘flavours’ of quarks

There are six types or ‘flavours’ of quarks summarised in the table. They also have charge.
Each quark has its corresponding antiquark.

Antiquarks are fundamental particles of antimatter.

Flavour of quark Symbol Charge Flavour of antiquark Symbol Charge

up u 2 antiup u" 2
+ 𝑒 − 𝑒
3 3

down d 1
− 𝑒
antidown d" 1
+ 𝑒
3 3

strange s 1 antistrange s̅ 1
− 𝑒 + 𝑒
3 3

charm c 2 anticharm 𝑐̅ 2
+ 𝑒 − 𝑒
3 3

top t 2 antitop 𝑡̅ 2
+ 𝑒 − 𝑒
3 3

bottom b 1
− 𝑒
antibottom 𝑏" 1
+ 𝑒
3 3

(b) Quark model of hadrons

Hadrons are particles that are relatively massive and are affected by the strong nuclear force.
Examples of hadrons are :

Protons, neutrons, pi+ meson, kappa meson, etc.

There are two types of hadrons. They are the baryons and the mesons.

Hadrons are made up of quarks that are held together by the strong nuclear force.

Protons and neutrons are hadrons that consist of 3 quarks and are called baryons.

Pi+ meson and kappa meson are hadrons made up of 2 quarks and are called mesons.

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 Hadron Quark composition

proton uud

neutron udd

antiproton u*u" *d

antineutron " d" *d

u

p+ meson "
ud

j meson s s̅

k+ meson u s̅

(ii) Leptons

Leptons are particles that are relatively light and are unaffected by the strong nuclear force.
Examples of leptons are :

Electrons, neutrinos, muons and taons

Contrary to hadrons, leptons are fundamental particles and have no substructure. But similar
to hadrons, each lepton has a corresponding antilepton.

Note : 1. One kind of neutrino is associated with one kind of lepton. For example, the
electron has its electron neutrino (𝑣) and the positron has its electron antineutrino
(𝑣̅ ).

2. Neutrinos and antineutrinos are have very little mass (much less than that of an
electron) and no electric charge.

(iii) Explaining Beta-decay in terms of fundamental particles

(i) During b--decay, a neutron (u d d) decays to become a proton (u u d). Thus, one of the
down quarks has become an up quark. During the process, an electron and an
antineutrino are emitted.

$
%𝑛 → $$𝑝 + %
#$𝑒 + 𝑣̅
u u

d u

d d

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 (ii) During b+-decay, a proton (u u d) decays to become a neutron (u d d). Thus, one of the
up quarks has become a down quark. During the process, an antielectron or positron and
a neutrino are emitted.

$
$𝑝 → $%𝑛 + %
&$𝑒 + 𝑣
u u

u d

d d

Exercises

1. (a) In the Geiger-Marsden experiment, state which particles were made to collide with a gold foil.

(b) Describe briefly the evidence that provided by this experiment.

2. An oxygen nucleus is represented by $/

+𝑂 .

(a) State its atomic number and mass number.

(b) Describe how many protons, neutrons and electrons it contains.

3. Plutonium is represented as !"!

)"𝑃𝑢 . How many neutrons does its nucleus contain?

4. Write down the nuclide notation of silver which contains 47 protons, 47 electrons and 62 neutrons.
Symbol of silver is Ag.

5. Hydrogen ( $ ! *
$𝐻 ), deuterium, ( $𝐻 ) and tritium, ( $𝐻 ) are isotopes.

(a) What is meant by the term isotope?

(b) Complete the table below.

Isotope Proton Number Neutron number Nucleon number

Hydrogen

Deuterium

Tritium

(c) Compare the chemical and physical properties of isotopes.

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6. Calculate the mass of the following nuclides in kg.

"
(i) !𝐻𝑒

,"
(ii) !/𝐹𝑒 [ 6.64 ´ 10 -27 kg, 8.96 ´ 10 -26 kg]

7. A stationary polonium nucleus !$! +"𝑃𝑜 of mass 212 u spontaneously emits an alpha particle with
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energy 1.4 ´ 10 J and the reaction gives rise to a nucleus of lead (Pb).

(a) Write down a nuclear equation to represent this radioactive decay.

(b) Calculate the speed of the alpha particle.

(c) Using the conservation of momentum, calculate the speed of the lead nucleus.

[2.1 ´ 10 7 m/s, 4.0 ´ 10 5 m/s]

8. A strontium-90 atom may decay with the emission of a b particle to form the nuclide yttrium-90. The
decay is represented by the equation

)% )%
*+𝑆𝑟 → *)𝑌 + 𝛽 + 𝑥 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
(a) State and explain whether the decay is a b- or b+ one.

(b) Hence, state the type of particle represented by b and x.

Write down the notation of both particles.

9. A proton in the nucleus decays to form a neutron and two other particles. The equation is
represented below.

$
$𝑝 → $%𝑛 + +
(a) Complete the decay equation.

(b) State the name of the particles emitted.

(c) State the name of the decay process.

(d) State three quantities which are conserved in this decay process.

10. In the hydrogen atom, an electron orbits the nucleus.

(a) State the nature of the force acting between the two particles.

(b) Explain why the strong nuclear force does not act on them.

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11. Distinguish between a hadron and a lepton, giving two examples of each.

12. By considering the quark composition of particles, determine the quark composition of their
respective antiparticle listed below.

(a) antiproton (c) p -

(b) antineutron (d) k -

13. By considering the charge on the quark flavours, determine the charge of the following particles:

(a) proton (c) antiproton (e) p +

(b) neutron (d) k - (f) j [+e, 0, -e, -e, +e, 0]

14. State the change in quark composition of the particles during the following beta decay.

$
%𝑛 → $$𝑝 + %
#$𝑒 + 𝑣̅

15. A hadron which has an overall charge of +e is made up of three quarks. One of the quarks is a
strange quark.

(a) State the charge on the strange quark.

(b) The two other quarks in the hadron have the same charge as each other.

Determine a possible flavour of the other two quarks.

Explain your working.

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