Experiment No: 2¢ Title: Identification, Specifications and Testing of different Resistors and Capacitors and Study of Digital Multimeter. Objective: 1. To Identify Different Types of Resistors, their Wattage Specifications, Printed or Calculated (using Color Codes) values of resistances. 2. To Identify Different Types of Capacitors, their Voltage Ratings, Printed or Calculated (using Color Codes) values of Capacitances, 3. To Study the functionalities of Digital Multimeter and measurement of different resistances, capacitances and node voltages using it. 4. To Study the procedure to design electrical circuits using Bread Boards, [The Experiment Covers the Course Outcome [Bloom’s Cognitive Domain Theory: Resistors- Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an electric circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is (omega). They are available in different values, shapes and sizes. Most types of resistor are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical current flows through them because they obey Ohm’s Law. There are many thousands of different Types of Resistor and ate produced in a variety of forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current ete, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of a problem All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups: + Carbon Composition Resistor ~ Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, have low ‘wattage values. The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the overall resistance. Carbon composite resistors are generally prefixed with “CR” notation (eg, CRIOKQ) and are available in E6 (+ 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 (+ 10% tolerance) and E24 (+ 5% tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.250 or 1/4 of a Watt up to 5 Watts. Carbon composite resistor types are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in electrical circuits. However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors have very large tolerances so for more precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used instead. + Film or Cermet Resistor ~ Made from conductive metal oxide paste, have very low wattage values. They have very less tolerance values (less than 1%). Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequeney applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors. Another type of film resistorcommonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic substrate, Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for peb’s and high frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current Se, mm Carton fim Hoteat cus to roach the Onsired resislance value (a) End cars ith eats Coram Carier colar Larger otch means shevter resistance: rh, Sus lower resistance value (d) (e) w (g) (h) Fig. 1: (a) Carbon Composite Resistors, (b) Carbon Film Resistors, (c) Metal Film Resistors, (d) Cermet Resistor, (e) Inside view of Film Resistors, (f) Thick Film Resistor, (g), (h) Wire-wound Resistors. Wire-wound Resistor ~Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, have very high wattage ratings. These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmichigh precision values (from 0.010 to 100k) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in meast ‘ing circuits and Wheatstone bridge type applications. They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts, + Semiconductor Resistor — They are high frequency/precision resistors with surface mount thin film technology +e @e # Cred Fig. 2: Semiconductor Resistors Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. 4 or 5 bands identifications are the most commonly used color coding schemes on all resistors. It consists of four or five colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. Resistor values are always coded in ohms (Q). The color codes are given in the following table in Fig. 3. 4-Band-Code 2%, 5%, 10% 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 1% 2370 +£1% 5-Band-Code Fig. 3: Color Codes of ResistorsCapacitors A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) used to store energy electros chemical reactions, The form a passive two-terminal electrical component atically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. There are numerous types of capacitors with various functions and applications. Capacitors range from small to large, and each has characteristics that make them unique. For example, Some capacitors are small and delicate, such as the ones found in radio circuits. On the other hand, capacitors can be quite large such as those found in smoothing circuits. However, in this lab we will mostly use electrolytic and ceramic capacitors for our experiments. Electrolytic capacitors An electrol ie capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are used in relatively high-current and low frequency electrical circuits. However, the voltage applied to these capacitors must be polarized; one specified terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. These are of two types, axial and radial capacitors as shown in adjacent figure. The arrowed stripe indicates the polarity, with the arrows pointing towards the ni tive pin, Fig. 4: Axial and Radial Electrolytic Capacitors Most electrolytic types of capacitors are polarized, meaning that the correct polarity must be used for the DC voltage applied to the capacitor. In other words, positive polarity must pait with the positive terminal and negative polarity to the negative terminal, In the event of an incorrect polarization, the oxide layer acting as insulation may break down and may become permanently damaged as a result. Due to their large capacitance and small size, electrolytic capacitors are used in DC power supply circuits. This is done for coupling and decoupling applications and to lessen the ripple voltage. Electrolytic capacitors come with a relatively low voltage rating (one of its main disadvantages). Because electrolytic cap : eannot (and must not) be used with AC supplies. acitors polarize, they Ceramic CapacitorsCeramic Capacitors are typically referred to as "Disc Capacitors." They're made by taking a small ceramic or porcelain dise and coating both sides with silver before stacking them together to make a functioning capacitor. Single ceramic discs of around 3 - 6mm are used when low capacitance values are needed, Ceram pacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are typically available so that a high capacitance can be achieved from a smaller sized object, Ceramic capacitors tend to display substantial non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature. As a result, ce citors are often used as by-pass or decoupling capacitors. Concerning values, ceramic capacitors range from a couple of picofarads to several microfarads (uF). Typically, however, ceramic capacitors have low voltage ratings. a mic capi Fig, 5: Ceramic Capacitors A 3-digit code is typically printed onto the body of the ceramic type capacitors to determine their capacitance in pico-farads. The calculation is relatively simple once it has been calculated ~ the first two digits represent the value of the capacitors while the third digit represents the number of zeros that need to be added. Electrolytic Capacitors Disc / Ceramic Capacitors “© Value shown in © Value shown in micro-tarads [UF] pico-farads [pF] \. © Negative terminal (1 pF = 0.000001 uF) shown by stripe or arrow © Non-polar (091 terminals) © 3rd digit is multiplier Fig, 6: Electrolytic Capacitors vs Ceramic Capacitors Breadboards- In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to build it, we must have some sort of'a platform that will both hold the components in place and provide the needed electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters wereamateur radio operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden bread e Although more sophisticated techniques and devices have been developed to make t assembly and testing of electronic circuits easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in embling components on a temporary platform UU EE HEE Lee eee IE eral peer arr era rer ts esan ses banseseuneeeel Peewee eee eee ee ere eee DoSte cesses sees ceeee owen (b) Fig. 7: (a) A 600x315 points Breadboard and (b) Its’ connection details A real breadboard is shown in Fig. 1(a) and the connection details on its rear side are shown in Fig. 1(b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In addition to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along the top and bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25 holes. These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line indicated on Fig.1(a) and needs an external connection if one wishes the entire row to be connected. This makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits.Digi | Multimeters- ‘ Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements, such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter because it combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and frequency test Parts Of Multimeter A Multimeter has three parts: Display Selection Knob Ports arse (d) (e) Fig. 8: (a), (b), (c) Digital Multimeters without capacitance/frequency measurement facilitie: (d), (€) Digital Multimeters with capacitance and frequency measurement facilities. The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few multimeters have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations. The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as milliamps (mA) of current, voltage(V) and resistance (Q). Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for common and is almost always connected to Ground or “-“ of a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than 200mA). mAV@Q is the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Q). The probes have a banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug will work with this meter. Safety Measures 1 BER au Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the desired measurement. Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged. ‘Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied. Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A or 300 mA input jack. To avoid damage or injury, never use the meter on circuits that exceed 4800 watts. Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and earth ground Be careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such voltages pose a shock hazard. Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when making measurements. To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal injury, replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears. Input Terminals The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into the 10 A jack when measuring currents greater than 200/300/400/500 mA (as marked), the 200/300/400/500 mA (as marked) jack when measuring currents less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other measurements. ‘Amps Volts, Ohms, Diode Test Input Terminals Mitiamps Common Terminal 9: Input Terminals of DMMProcedure for Measurement of AC/DC Voltage \. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “VQ” jack socket and the negative(black) lead to the “COM” jack socket 2. Set the selector switch to the desired AC/DC Voltage range. 3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured. 4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the digital display along with the voltage polarity (if reversed only). Current Measurement 1, Connect the positive(red) test lead to the mA/pA jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the “COM” jack socket (for measurements up to 400mA). For measurements between 400mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the “10A” socket. 2. Set the selector switch to the desired pA/mA/A range. 3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in which current is to be measured. 4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is less than 400 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more than 10 ‘amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn power on. Resistance Measurement 1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the “VQ” jack socket and the negative (black) lead to the “COM” jack socket. 2. Set the selector switch to the desired “OHM Q”, 3. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all capacitors before measurement. 4, Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured. 5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.