1. Write short notes on the measurements of high and low temperatures.

Ans: Repeated *check ans-14

2. State with reasons the type of thermometer which you consider most suitable for use at
temperatures (a) -250°C (b) 700°C, and (c) 2000°C. Indicate briefly the methods of their
use.
Ans: (a) -250°C:
Suitable Thermometer: Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) or Platinum Resistance
Thermometer
Reasons:
• Method of Use: RTDs, especially those using platinum, are suitable for measuring
temperatures as low as -250°C.
• Principle: These thermometers use the change in electrical resistance of materials with
temperature.
• Applications: Widely employed in cryogenic storage, scientific research, and low-
temperature industrial processes due to their accuracy at such extreme low
temperatures.
(b) 700°C:
Suitable Thermometer: Pyrometer (Infrared Type)
Reasons:
• Method of Use: Pyrometers, particularly the infrared type, are ideal for measuring high
temperatures, including 700°C.
• Principle: Measures the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the object. Infrared
pyrometers are specifically designed for high-temperature applications.
• Applications: Found in industries like metalworking, glass manufacturing, and furnaces,
where temperatures can reach 700°C.
(c) 2000°C:
Suitable Thermometer: Thermocouple
Reasons:
• Method of Use: Thermocouples are reliable for very high-temperature measurements,
making them suitable for 2000°C.
• Principle: Based on the Seebeck effect, where two dissimilar metals generate a voltage
proportional to the temperature difference.
• Applications: Ideal for extreme high-temperature scenarios, such as in industrial
furnaces, engines, and high-temperature processes where temperatures can reach up to
2500°C.
By choosing the Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) or Platinum Resistance
Thermometer for very low temperatures, accurate readings can be obtained without
relying specifically on cryogenic thermometer technology.
3. Describe a resistance thermometer. Explain how it is used to measure temperatures
accurately. Discuss its advantages over a thermoelectric thermometer.
Ans: Resistance Thermometer:
A resistance thermometer, also known as a resistance temperature detector (RTD), is a type
of temperature sensor that operates based on the principle that the electrical resistance of
certain materials changes predictably with temperature. The most common type of RTD uses
a fine wire made of platinum due to its stability and linearity over a wide temperature range.
Operation:
• Material and Construction: Platinum wire is typically wound into a coil or deposited
on a substrate. As the temperature changes, the electrical resistance of the platinum wire
changes in a known and repeatable manner.
• Resistance-Temperature Relationship: The relationship between the electrical
resistance of the RTD and temperature is well-defined and follows a predictable curve,
often adhering closely to the Callendar-Van Dusen equation.

Usage in Temperature Measurement:

1. Calibration: Before usage, RTDs are calibrated to ensure accuracy at specific
temperature ranges.
2. Connection to Measuring Instruments: RTDs are connected to a measuring
instrument, such as a bridge circuit or a digital temperature display, which reads the
electrical resistance and converts it into an accurate temperature value.
3. Accurate Temperature Measurement: By precisely measuring the change in
resistance, the RTD accurately determines the temperature of the system or environment
in which it is placed.

Advantages over Thermoelectric Thermometer (Thermocouple):

1. Accuracy: RTDs are more accurate than thermocouples. They provide a highly
precise and stable output over a wide range of temperatures, with better linearity and
repeatability.
2. Sensitivity: RTDs generally have higher sensitivity compared to thermocouples,
meaning they can detect small changes in temperature more effectively.
3. Long-Term Stability: RTDs tend to maintain stability and accuracy over a more
extended period, making them suitable for long-term and critical temperature
measurement applications.
4. Predictable Response: The relationship between resistance and temperature in RTDs
follows a standardized and predictable curve, which simplifies calibration and ensures
reliable and consistent measurements.
While thermoelectric thermometers (thermocouples) have their advantages (such as
durability and suitability for high-temperature applications), the RTD's precision, stability,
and better accuracy make it a preferred choice for many industrial and scientific
temperature measurement applications where precise and reliable temperature readings
are essential.
4. Describe a platinum resistance thermometer. How would you calibrate and use it for
measuring the temperature of an object? Mention its advantages.
Ans: Platinum Resistance Thermometer (PRT):
A platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is a type of resistance temperature detector
(RTD) that utilizes a platinum wire as the sensing element. Platinum is chosen for its
excellent stability, linearity, and consistent behavior over a wide temperature range. The
resistance of the platinum wire changes in a predictable and repeatable manner in
response to temperature variations.
Structure and Operation:
• Platinum Element: The PRT contains a coil or thin film made of platinum wire. As the
temperature changes, the electrical resistance of the platinum wire alters in a known
and consistent manner.
• Resistance-Temperature Relationship: Platinum's resistance changes in a highly linear
and predictable way with temperature, adhering closely to the Callendar-Van Dusen
equation.
Calibration and Usage for Temperature Measurement:
1. Calibration: The PRT must be calibrated initially to establish a relationship between its
electrical resistance and the corresponding temperature. This is typically done using a
precision temperature source or a standardized reference thermometer.
2. Connection to Measuring Instruments: PRTs are connected to measurement devices
such as a bridge circuit or digital temperature indicator, which detects the resistance
change and converts it accurately into a temperature reading.
3. Temperature Measurement: By monitoring the change in resistance, the PRT provides
an accurate temperature measurement of the object or environment it is placed in.
Advantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer:
1. Accuracy: PRTs are highly accurate and offer excellent precision in temperature
measurement over a wide range.
2. Linearity and Stability: They provide a linear and stable output over a broad
temperature span, ensuring reliable and consistent readings.
3. High Sensitivity: PRTs exhibit high sensitivity, allowing them to detect small temperature
variations effectively.
4. Wide Temperature Range: Platinum's behavior allows PRTs to measure temperatures
from -200°C to over 1000°C, covering a vast range of applications.
5. Long-Term Stability: PRTs maintain stability and accuracy over prolonged periods,
making them suitable for critical and long-term temperature measurement tasks.
Utilizing a platinum resistance thermometer involves calibration against known
standards and connecting it to appropriate measurement devices to ensure accurate
and reliable temperature readings. Their exceptional accuracy, stability, and wide
temperature range make PRTs preferred for various industrial and scientific applications
where precise and consistent temperature measurements are crucial.
5. Briefly state the principle underlying the working of a thermo-electric thermometer.
Ans: The principle underlying the working of a thermoelectric thermometer is the Seebeck
effect, which describes the generation of a voltage when two different conductive materials
are joined at two different temperatures. When there is a temperature gradient between the
junctions of these dissimilar materials, it creates a potential difference (voltage) that is
proportional to the temperature difference. This effect occurs due to variations in the
behavior of electrons at different temperatures within the materials.
The Seebeck effect is the fundamental basis for the operation of thermocouples, which are
made of two different metal wires joined at one end. When one end of the thermocouple is
exposed to the temperature being measured, it generates a voltage that can be measured
and correlated with the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions, allowing
for temperature determination.
Thermoelectric thermometers rely on this thermoelectric effect to convert temperature
differences into measurable electrical signals, offering a convenient and straightforward
method for temperature measurement in various industrial, scientific, and commercial
applications.

6. If the platinum temperature corresponding to 60°C on the gas scale is 60.25°C, what will be
the temperature on the platinum scale corresponding t0 120°C on the gas scale?
7. If the platinum temperature corresponding to 60°C on the gas scale is 60.36°C, what will be
the temperature on the platinum scale corresponding to 151.7°C on the gas scale?

8. Briefly explain the working principle of a platinum resistance thermometer. Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer: **check 4
9. What is the Seebeck effect? How can it be used for the measurement of temperature?
Explain the terms thermocouple, neutral temperature, and temperature inversion.
Answer: Seebeck Effect:
The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon that describes the generation of an electromotive
force (EMF) or voltage when two dissimilar conductive materials form a junction and
experience a temperature gradient. This effect is based on the principle that different
materials conduct electricity differently and generate a voltage when exposed to
different temperatures.
Use for Temperature Measurement:
The Seebeck effect is the fundamental principle behind thermocouples, which are
temperature sensors constructed by joining two different conductive materials. When
one end of a thermocouple is exposed to a temperature different from the other end, a
voltage is generated due to the Seebeck effect. This voltage is directly related to the
temperature difference between the two ends, allowing for temperature measurement.

Terms Related to Thermocouples:

1. Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a temperature sensor consisting of two dissimilar
conductive wires joined at one end to form a junction. The voltage produced due to the
Seebeck effect is measured to determine the temperature difference between the two
ends.
2. Neutral Temperature: The neutral temperature (also known as the cold junction or
reference junction) is the point where the thermocouple wires meet the measuring
instrument (such as a thermometer or voltmeter). This junction is usually kept at a
stable, known temperature to ensure accurate temperature measurement.
3. Temperature Inversion: Temperature inversion refers to a condition where the
temperature near the neutral junction of a thermocouple is higher than the
temperature being measured. This scenario can introduce errors in temperature
measurement, especially when the reference point (neutral temperature) isn't properly
controlled or calibrated. It's crucial to maintain the reference junction at a consistent
temperature to avoid inaccuracies caused by temperature inversion.
Thermocouples are widely used in various industries for temperature measurement due
to their reliability, durability, and ability to measure a broad range of temperatures.
Proper management of the neutral temperature is crucial for accurate temperature
readings, while being aware of and minimizing the effects of temperature inversion
helps maintain measurement accuracy in thermocouple-based temperature sensing
systems.
10. State and explain the working principle of a thermocouple.
Answer: A thermocouple is a temperature sensor that operates based on the Seebeck effect,
where a voltage is generated when two dissimilar conductive materials are joined at two
different temperatures. This effect forms the fundamental principle underlying the operation
of a thermocouple.
Working Principle of a Thermocouple:
1. Two Different Metals: A thermocouple consists of two different conductive metal wires
joined at one end to form a junction. These metals are chosen for their dissimilarity in
their electrical properties and their ability to produce a measurable voltage when
exposed to different temperatures.
2. Seebeck Effect: When one end of the thermocouple (the measurement junction) is
exposed to a different temperature than the other end (the reference junction or
neutral temperature), a temperature gradient is established across the length of the
thermocouple wires. Due to the Seebeck effect, an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage
is generated at the junction in proportion to the temperature difference between the
measurement and reference junctions.
3. Voltage Measurement: The voltage produced by the thermocouple is measured using a
voltmeter or a specialized instrument. This measured voltage is correlated to the
temperature difference between the measurement and reference junctions.
4. Temperature Determination: By referencing the measured voltage against standardized
tables or equations specific to the particular thermocouple materials used, the
temperature difference can be converted into an accurate temperature reading.
Key Points:
• Calibration: Each type of thermocouple (e.g., Type K, Type J) has its own unique
characteristics in generating voltage relative to temperature. They need calibration
against known temperature standards to ensure accuracy.
• Measurement Errors: Factors such as resistance in the thermocouple wires, wire aging,
and electrical noise can affect the accuracy of temperature measurements and need to
be accounted for and minimized.
• Application: Thermocouples are widely used in various industries due to their durability,
wide temperature range capabilities, and suitability for harsh environments.
Thermocouples are commonly used for temperature measurement in industrial,
scientific, and commercial applications due to their reliability, cost-effectiveness, and
ability to measure a wide range of temperatures accurately

11. Briefly explain the working principle of pyrometers.

Answer: Pyrometers are devices designed to measure high temperatures without directly
contacting the object being measured. Their working principle is primarily based on
detecting and measuring the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hot object.
Working Principle of Pyrometers:
1. Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation: All objects with a temperature above absolute
zero emit electromagnetic radiation, primarily in the infrared region. The intensity and
spectrum of this radiation depend on the object's temperature.
2. Optical System: Pyrometers are equipped with an optical system that focuses on the
emitted radiation from the target object.
3. Detector: A detector within the pyrometer captures the focused radiation. Different types
of pyrometers use varied detectors such as thermopiles, photodiodes, or bolometers to
sense the emitted infrared radiation.
 4. Measurement and Temperature Calculation: The detector measures the intensity of the
infrared radiation received and converts it into an electrical signal. This signal is then
analyzed and processed by the pyrometer to determine the temperature of the object based
on the intensity of the emitted radiation. The relationship between the radiation intensity
and temperature is usually calibrated using known temperature standards.
5. Display or Output: The determined temperature is displayed on the pyrometer's screen
or output to a connected device or system for further processing or recording.
Types of Pyrometers:
• Optical Pyrometers: These use visible light to compare the color of the object to a
calibrated scale to estimate temperature.
• Infrared Pyrometers: These directly measure the intensity of the infrared radiation
emitted by the object.
Application:
Pyrometers are commonly used in industrial settings, such as in foundries, metalworking,
furnaces, and glass manufacturing, where direct contact temperature measurement might
not be feasible or safe due to extreme heat or contamination concerns.
The working principle of pyrometers allows for non-contact temperature measurement by
detecting and analyzing the electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot objects, enabling
accurate temperature assessment in high-temperature environments without physically
touching the object.

12. Describe two methods of measuring high temperatures.

Ans: ***check 14
13. State and explain the working principle of a thermoelectric thermometer.
Answer: A thermoelectric thermometer operates on the principle of the Seebeck effect,
which describes the generation of a voltage when two dissimilar conductive materials are
joined at different temperatures. This effect forms the foundational working principle of a
thermoelectric thermometer.

Working Principle of a Thermoelectric Thermometer:

Seebeck Effect: The thermoelectric thermometer consists of two different conductive
materials or metals joined at one end, forming a junction. When this junction is exposed to a
temperature different from the other end, a voltage is produced due to the Seebeck effect.

Voltage Generation: The temperature difference between the two ends of the
thermoelectric thermometer leads to the generation of a thermoelectric voltage (also known
as the Seebeck voltage). This voltage is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the two junctions according to the Seebeck effect.

Measurement of Voltage: The voltage generated due to the temperature gradient is

measured using an electronic instrument, such as a voltmeter or specialized thermoelectric
measuring device.

Temperature Calculation: The measured voltage is correlated with the known Seebeck
coefficient characteristics of the specific combination of materials used in the thermoelectric
thermometer. This relationship between the voltage and temperature allows the
thermometer to determine the temperature difference between the two ends.
 Output and Display: The determined temperature, usually a temperature difference, is
either displayed on the device or output to a connected system for further analysis or
recording.

Key Points:
Materials Selection: The choice of materials for the thermocouple affects the sensitivity and
temperature range of the thermometer. Common thermocouple pairs include combinations
like Type K (chromel-alumel) and Type J (iron-constantan).

Calibration: Thermoelectric thermometers need calibration against known temperature

standards to ensure accurate temperature measurement.

Applications: They are widely used in various industries due to their versatility, durability,
and ability to measure temperature differentials, making them useful in applications such as
temperature monitoring in industrial processes and scientific research.

Thermoelectric thermometers, based on the Seebeck effect, are known for their reliability,
robustness, and suitability for a wide range of temperatures. They provide valuable
temperature measurements based on the voltage generated by the temperature difference
between the two junctions of the thermocouple.

14. Write an essay on the measurement of high and low temperatures

Answer: Measurement of High and Low Temperatures
Temperature measurement is a fundamental aspect of various industries, scientific research,
and everyday applications. Accurately measuring temperatures, whether extremely high or
low, is essential for ensuring safety, controlling processes, and conducting precise scientific
experiments. The methods and instruments used for measuring high and low temperatures
differ based on the specific range of temperatures to be observed.
Measurement of High Temperatures:
1. Thermocouples: Thermocouples are widely used for high-temperature measurements.
They operate on the Seebeck effect, using two dissimilar conductive materials to generate a
voltage proportional to the temperature difference. They're suitable for temperatures
ranging from moderate to extremely high, often reaching up to 2500°C. Industries rely on
thermocouples in applications such as industrial furnaces, engines, and high-temperature
processes.
2. Pyrometers: Pyrometers measure high temperatures by detecting the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by hot objects. They come in various types, including optical and infrared
pyrometers. Optical pyrometers estimate temperature by comparing an object's color to a
calibrated scale, while infrared pyrometers measure the intensity of the emitted infrared
radiation. These instruments are essential in industries such as metalworking, glass
manufacturing, and monitoring furnaces.
Measurement of Low Temperatures:
1. Thermistors: Thermistors are temperature sensors that use the principle of resistance
change with temperature. These devices, made of semiconductor materials, are suitable for
moderate to low temperatures, often measuring down to -100°C. Commonly used in
applications like refrigeration, cryogenics, and climate control.
2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): RTDs, often constructed with platinum,
measure temperature through changes in electrical resistance. They are suitable for
 moderate to low temperatures and find usage in HVAC systems, industrial freezers, and
pharmaceutical storage.
Advantages and Challenges:
Accurate temperature measurement at both high and low ranges is essential for maintaining
quality, safety, and precision in numerous applications. High-temperature measurements are
crucial for optimizing industrial processes, while low-temperature measurements are vital for
preserving sensitive materials and enabling advancements in scientific research.
While various instruments and methods cater to these temperature extremes, challenges
persist. High temperatures can affect the stability and longevity of sensors, while low
temperatures often require specialized equipment due to the limited range of materials
suitable for extreme cold.
In conclusion, the measurement of high and low temperatures encompasses a range of
technologies and instruments designed to meet specific requirements. These methods play a
critical role in diverse fields, ensuring accurate and reliable temperature data that drive
advancements, safety, and efficiency in various industries and scientific endeavors.

15. Briefly explain the thermal Diffusivity. Write up its significance

Answer:
Thermal Diffusivity refers to a material's ability to conduct heat relative to its ability to store
heat. It represents how quickly heat can pass through a material compared to how much
heat the material can hold. Mathematically, it's defined as the ratio of a material's thermal
conductivity to its heat capacity per unit volume.
Formula for Thermal Diffusivity:
Thermal Diffusivity (α) = Thermal Conductivity (k) / (Density (ρ) * Specific Heat Capacity (C))
Where:
• k is the material's thermal conductivity.
• ρ is the material's density.
• C is the material's specific heat capacity.
Significance of Thermal Diffusivity:
1. Heat Transfer Analysis: Thermal diffusivity is crucial in understanding and predicting
how quickly heat can propagate through a material. It determines the rate at which
temperature changes occur within the material over time.
2. Material Selection: Engineers and scientists consider thermal diffusivity when selecting
materials for specific applications. For instance, in applications requiring fast heat transfer,
materials with high thermal diffusivity are preferred.
3. Temperature Control: Understanding the thermal diffusivity of materials is essential in
designing systems for temperature control. It helps in predicting how quickly a material will
reach a steady temperature when subjected to heating or cooling.
4. Process Efficiency: In industrial applications, knowledge of thermal diffusivity aids in
optimizing processes by selecting materials that effectively conduct and retain heat as
needed.
5. Scientific Research: In research, thermal diffusivity is essential for studying heat transfer
phenomena, thermal properties of materials, and the behavior of heat within various
substances.
6. Quality Control: Industries use thermal diffusivity measurements for quality control
purposes in materials processing and manufacturing, ensuring the desired thermal
properties in the produced materials.
 Understanding thermal diffusivity is crucial in various fields, aiding in material selection,
system design, and process optimization. It enables engineers and scientists to predict and
control heat transfer, thereby influencing the efficiency, performance, and reliability of a
wide array of industrial and scientific processes.

16. Define the thermal conductivity and hence find its unit and dimension
Answer: Thermal Conductivity refers to a material's ability to conduct heat. It is a
fundamental property that quantifies how well a substance allows heat to move through it
when there is a temperature gradient. In other words, it describes a material's ability to
transfer heat energy.
Formula for Thermal Conductivity:
The equation for thermal conductivity (k) is:

Unit of Thermal Conductivity:

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of thermal conductivity is watts per meter
per Kelvin (W/mK). Other common units are calories per second per centimeter per degree
Celsius (cal/s·cm·°C) or British thermal units per hour per foot per degree Fahrenheit
(Btu/h·ft·°F).
Dimension of Thermal Conductivity:
The dimensional formula for thermal conductivity can be derived from its definition. It can
be expressed as:

Breaking down the units of the variables in the formula:

• Heat Transfer Rate is measured in watts (W)
• Area is measured in square meters (m²)
• Distance (Thickness) is measured in meters (m)
• Temperature Difference is measured in Kelvin (K)
Hence, the dimensional formula for thermal conductivity is:

This represents the dimensions of the unit, showing that thermal conductivity is measured in
terms of power per unit area, per unit temperature difference, and per unit length.

17. Give the theory of radial flow of heat via spherical shell method.
Slides
18. Briefly describe the theory of radial flow of heat via cylindrical method.
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19. Discuss the theory of heat flow through a compound wall.
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20. Discuss the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of increase of entropy.
Answer: The Second Law of Thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in physics that
establishes the direction of natural processes and sets limitations on the efficiency of heat
engines. It is usually articulated in various ways, one of which involves the concept of
entropy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Statements of the Second Law:
1. Clausius Statement: "Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter
body."
2. Kelvin-Planck Statement: "It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle
and produces no effect other than the extraction of heat from a single heat reservoir and
conversion of this heat into work."
Principle of Increase of Entropy:
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. The principle of increase of
entropy, a consequence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, states that the entropy of an
isolated system tends to increase over time and does not decrease in any natural process.
This implies an increase in the randomness or disorder of a system.
Key Aspects of the Principle of Increase of Entropy:
1. Irreversibility: In natural processes, the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase,
and the process tends to move towards a state of greater disorder. While individual
interactions can decrease entropy, the overall entropy of an isolated system always increases.
2. Direction of Natural Processes: Natural processes tend towards a state of higher entropy.
For example, heat naturally flows from a hot body to a cold body, and a gas in a sealed
container tends to spread uniformly, increasing its disorder (entropy).
3. Entropy and Energy Quality: The concept of entropy connects to the quality of energy.
The process of energy transfer tends to lead to a decrease in the quality of energy as it
transforms to forms less available for doing work.
4. Limitations on Reversibility: The increase in entropy imposes limits on the reversibility of
processes. While some processes can be reversible in theory, achieving perfect reversibility in
practice is often impossible due to the increase in entropy.
The Second Law and the principle of increase of entropy have profound implications in
understanding natural processes, energy transformations, and the limitations of certain
physical systems. They play a critical role in various fields, including thermodynamics,
engineering, and environmental science.

21. Derive the adiabatic gas equation: Pv^r = constant where the symbols carry their standard
meanings.
Answer:
22. What is meant by heat and temperature? What are the basic requisites of a thermometer?
Write up the basic properties of a material on which a thermometer is built.
Answer: Heat and Temperature:
• Heat: Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between objects due to a temperature
difference. It flows from a warmer object to a cooler object. It is measured in units such as
joules or calories.
• Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
substance. It determines the direction of heat transfer (from higher temperature to lower
temperature). It is typically measured in units like Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin.
Basic Requisites of a Thermometer:
A thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of a body or an environment. A
thermometer should have the following basic requisites:
• Construction: A thermometer should have a temperature sensor that changes its physical
property with temperature, such as the expansion of a liquid, the resistance of a metal, or
the voltage of a thermocouple. A thermometer should also have a scale that can display the
temperature in a standard unit, such as Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin.
• Calibration: A thermometer should be calibrated by comparing its readings with the known
values of two fixed points, such as the freezing point and boiling point of water. The
calibration process ensures that the thermometer is accurate and consistent.
• Sensitiveness: A thermometer should be sensitive to small changes in temperature and
respond quickly to them. A thermometer should also have a high resolution, meaning that it
can measure temperature to a fine degree of precision. .

Properties of Materials used in Thermometers:

1. Thermal Expansion: The material should expand or contract consistently with changes in
temperature. For example, mercury or alcohol in glass thermometers expands or contracts
with temperature changes.
2. Thermal Conductivity: The material's ability to conduct heat is important as it allows the
transferred heat to affect the properties of the material, leading to a measurable change.
3. Chemical Stability: The material should not chemically react or degrade with temperature
changes to ensure accuracy and longevity of the thermometer.
4. Specific Heat Capacity: The material's specific heat capacity influences how quickly it
responds to temperature changes.
5. Readability: The material should allow for easy reading or interpretation of the
temperature, either through expansion or contraction, color change, or resistance change.
Materials used in thermometers should possess these essential properties to ensure
accurate and reliable temperature measurement.
Thermometers are designed based on the properties of materials that respond predictably to
changes in temperature. The choice of material varies based on the temperature range of
interest and the specific requirements of the application, whether it's a mercury
thermometer, alcohol thermometer, thermocouple, or infrared thermometer.
23. What is an adiabatic process? Derive the adiabatic gas equation TV^r-1 = constant
Answer:
24. Give the theory of the radial flow of heat via the spherical shell method
25. State and explain the 0th and 1st laws of thermodynamics
Answer:
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics essentially defines the concept of temperature and
thermal equilibrium. It states:
"If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other."
This law implies that if two separate systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It introduces the concept of
temperature and establishes the basis for a temperature scale. It's called the "Zeroth Law"
because it underpins the foundation of the temperature concept, even before the First Law
was officially formulated.
First Law of Thermodynamics:
The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the Law of Energy Conservation, is based
on the principle of conservation of energy. It states:
"The total energy of an isolated system remains constant. Energy can be transformed from
one form to another or transferred from one system to another, but it cannot be created or
destroyed."
This law is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy and asserts that within an
isolated system, the total energy remains constant. Energy can change forms (such as from
heat to work or vice versa) or transfer from one part of the system to another, but the total
energy in the system remains constant.
Explanation:
The Zeroth Law establishes the concept of temperature and thermal equilibrium, while the
First Law highlights the conservation of energy within systems. Together, they set the
foundational principles upon which the entire field of thermodynamics is built, defining key
 concepts of energy, heat, work, and temperature in the study of physical systems and their
behavior.

26. Explain the term: thermal conductivity, temperature gradient, thermal diffusivity
Answer: Thermal Conductivity:
Definition: Thermal conductivity is a property that describes the ability of a material to
conduct heat. It quantifies how well a material allows heat to pass through it by conduction.
It is denoted by the symbol k.
Explanation: Materials with high thermal conductivity transfer heat effectively, while those
with low thermal conductivity are poor conductors and insulate against heat transfer. For
instance, metals like copper and aluminum have high thermal conductivity, while materials
like wood or glass have lower thermal conductivity.
Temperature Gradient:
Definition: Temperature gradient refers to the rate of change in temperature over a distance
within a material or space. It's measured in units of temperature per unit length (e.g., °C per
meter or K per centimeter).
Explanation: In simple terms, it describes how rapidly temperature changes over a specific
distance. A steeper temperature gradient indicates a quicker change in temperature over a
shorter distance, while a gentle gradient suggests a slower change over a more extended
space.
Thermal Diffusivity:
Definition: Thermal diffusivity (α) is a property that relates the ability of a material to
conduct heat to its capacity to store heat. It is the ratio of a material's thermal conductivity
(k) to its density (ρ) and specific heat capacity (c).
Explanation: Thermal diffusivity describes how quickly a material can transfer heat in
relation to its ability to store thermal energy. Materials with high thermal diffusivity rapidly
respond to temperature changes and distribute heat efficiently, while those with low thermal
diffusivity tend to retain heat longer and respond slowly to temperature changes.
Relationships between the Concepts:
• Thermal Conductivity vs. Thermal Diffusivity: Materials with high thermal conductivity
might not necessarily have high thermal diffusivity. For example, metals usually have high
thermal conductivity, but their thermal diffusivity might vary based on their density and
specific heat capacity.
• Temperature Gradient and Heat Flow: A larger temperature gradient within a material
indicates a higher rate of heat transfer or heat flow. Heat naturally flows from regions of
higher temperature to lower temperature, following the temperature gradient.
Understanding these concepts is crucial in various fields, including material science,
engineering, and the study of heat transfer mechanisms in different systems and materials.