ASSIGNMENT NO.

2
SKELETAL AND ARTICULAR SYSTEM

- Composed of bones and cartilages forming framework of body.

FUNCTIONS
1. supports surrounding structures

2. It protects vital visceral organs

3. Gives attachment to the muscles and provides leverage soassisting in body

movements.

4. It produces blood cells. This occurs in the red bone marrow.

5. For storage area of mineral salts, especially phosphorus and calcium, to supply
body needs.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
A. ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Long bones
- consist of a shaft, or diaphysis, and two extremities, each called
epiphysis

e.g - humerus, radius, tibia and fi bula

2. Short bones
- typified by the carpal bones of the wrist and the tarsal bones of the
ankle, with a somewhat irregular shape.
3. Flat bones
- These bones consist of two flat plates of compact tissue enclosing
a layer of spongy bone.

- Found wherever is a aneed for protection of soft body parts or a

provision foe extensive muscle attachment

e.g. - The ribs, the scapula, parts of the hip bone, and the bones of the
skull are all examples of fl at bones
4. Irregular bones
- Have some basic structure as short and flat bones: however, this last
group comprises bones of peculiar and differing shapes, such as the
vertebrae and the ossicles of the ear.

5. Sesamoid bone
- sesamoid bones are enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue and are
found adjacent to joints.
 B. ACCORDING TO DEVELOPMENT

1. Bones formed by intramembranous ossification

- This is a process involving the direct mineralization of dense connective tissue
membrane, thus forming bone.

e.g - flat bones of the cranium

2. Bones formed by endochondral ossification

- Most bones in the body are formed by the process of endochondral
ossification, the replacement of hyaline cartilage by bone.

DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON

A. AXIAL SKELETON
- there is a total of 206 bones in the skeleton

- The axial part consists of the skull (28 bones) (8 cranial, 14 facial, 6
ear ossicles) the hyoid bone, the vertebrae (26 bones) the ribs (24
bones) and the sternum

B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- consists of the upper extremities
(64 bones, including the shoulder girdle)
(62 bones including pelvic girdle)

AXIAL SKELETON

BONE NUMBER LOCATION

1. Skull 28 bones
A. Cranial bones 8 bones
Occipital 1 - Posterior cranial floor and back of head
- Important features:
* foramen magnum
* occipital condyles
* external occipital protuberance
Parietal 2 - Forms greater part of the superior
lateral aspect of the skull between
frontal and occipitalk bones
- Articulates with frontal through coronal suture
- Ariculates with occipital through
lambdoidal suture
Frontal 1 - Forms forehead, most of orbital roof and
anterior cranial fossa
- with superciliary arches
Temporal 2 - Inferior lateral aspect and base of the skull,
housing middle and inner ear structures
- With squamous,tympanic petrous & mastoid parts
- Important features:
* mastoid process
 * external occipital protuberance
Sphenoid 1 - Mid-anterior base of the skull; forms part of
Floor and lateral orbital wall
- With sella turcica, greater wing and lesser wing
Ethmoid 1 - Between nasal bones and sphenoid, forming
part of anterior cranial floor, medial wall or
orbits, part of nasal septum, and roof of
nasal cavity
- Important features:
* with crista gali
* cribriform plate
* superior and middle conchae
* plate of ethmoid
B. Facial bones 14 bones
Nasal 2 - Upper bridge of nose
Maxillary 2 - Upper jaw
Zygomatic(malar) 2 - Prominence of cheeks and part of lateral
Wall and floor of the orbits
Mandible 1 - Lower jaw
Lacrimal 2 - Anterior medial wall of the orbit
Palatine 2 - Posterior nasal cavity between maxilae and
The pterygoid processes of sphenoid, part of
Hard palate
Vomer 1 - Posterior portion of the nasl septum
Inferior nasal 2 - Lateral wall of nasal cavity
conchae (inferior
turbinates)
C. Auditory Ossicles 6
Malleus 2
Incus 2 - Small bones in middle ear in temporal bone
Stapes 2
2. Hyoid 1 bone - Horseshoe - shaped in upper part of anterior
neck
3. Trunk 51 bones
Vertebrae 26 bones - Framework of the back
- Parts of typical vertebrae
a. body
b. vertebral arch
* consists of pedicles, laminae,
spinous and transverse process
Cervical - vertebrae in neck region
- Important features:
* Transverse foramen for pssage of
- Types:
ertebral artery
a. typical C3 to C6 (with bifi d spine)
b. Atypical (with bifid spine)
1. C1 (atlas)
- no body
2. C2 (axis) (epistropheus)
 - with odontoid process
3. C7 (vertebra prominens)
- with long single spine
thoracic 12 - Vertebrae in thoracic region
Lumbar 5 - Between thorax and pelvis
Sacrum 1 (5 fused) - Back of pelvic cavity
Coccyx 1 (4 fused) - Terminal vertebrae in pelvis- fixed or false
vertebrae, found below the sacrum
Ribs 24 - True ribs- upper seven pairs fastened to
Sternum by costal cartilages
- last two parts do not match and are called
Floating ribs
Sternum 1 - Flat, narrow bone situated in median line
Anteriorly in chest
- Made up of 3 parts: manubrium, body and
Xiphoid process

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

1. Upper extremity 64 bones

Clavicle 2 - Together, clavicles and scapulae form the
shoulder girdle; the clavicle articulates with
the sternum called collar bone
Scapula 2 - Shoulder blade
Humerus 2 - Long bone of upper arm
- Important features
* head, greater and lesser tuberosities in
Upper end
* in lower end capitulum for articulations
With radius and trochlear for ulna
* Contains also three fossae -
Olecranon, radial and coronoid
Ulna 2 - The ulna is the longest bone of forearm on
medial side of radius
Radius 2 - lateral to ulna, shorter than ulna, but styloid
Process is larger at distal end
Carpals 16 - Two rows of bones composing the wrist
Scaphoid
Lunate - wrist bones in proximal row from lateral to
Medial side
Triangular
Pisiform
Capitate
Hammate - wrist bones in distal row from lateral to
Medial side
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Metacarpals 10 - Bones of hand proper
Phalanges 28 - Bones of the fingers
2. Lower extremity 63 bones
Hip bone 2 - Fusion of ilium, ischium and pubis
- Important features:
* iliac crest
* acetabulum
* ischial tuberosity
Femur (high bone) 2 - Longest bone in the body
- Important features
* Upper end - head, neck, greater and
Lesser trochanter
* Lower end - femoral condyles
Patella 2 - Kneecap; located in quadriceps tendon; a
Sesamoid bone
Tibia 2 - Shinbone; anteromedial side of the leg
Fibula 2 - Lateral to tibia (splint bone)
Tarsals 14 - Form ankle bones
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
First cuneiform
(medial)
Second cuneiform)
(intermediate)
Third cuneiform
(lateral)
Metatarsals 10 - Bones of the foot proper
Phalanges 28 - Bones of the toes

JOINTS (ARTHROSES)

JOINTS
- or articulations, are structures joining 2 or more bones

I. CLASSIFICATION
A. ACCORDING TO TYPE OF BINDING TISSUE BETWEEN ARTICULATING
BONES
1. FIBROUS
- Binding tissue is fibrous

Examples:
a. Sutures
- found between the skull bones (cranial and facial)
e.g. Coronal - between frontal and parietal
Sagittal - between parietal bones
Lambdoidal - between parietal and occipital bone
b. Syndesmosis
- articulating bones are separated from each other by fibrous
connective united by a fibrous connective tissue
e.g. inferior tibio- fibular joint
 c.Gomphosis
- attachment of the roots of the teeth to the maxilla and mandible

2. CARTILAGENOUS
- tissue that unites the articulating bones is a cartilage

Examples:
a.Symphysis
- the binding element is fibro-cartilage

e.g.Symphysis pubis, intervertebral disk

b.Synchondrosis
- found in developing bone where the epiphysis and diaphysis
Are united by an epiphyseal cartilage

3. SYNOVIAL
- with a fibrous capsule around a synovial cavity between the articulating
bones
a.Spheroid cotyloid/ball and socket)
- hip joint
- shoulder joint
b. Ginglymus / Hinge joint
- elbow joint
- ankle joint
c. Trochoid/Pivot joint
- atlantoaxial joint
- superior radio-ulnar joint
d. Condyloid joint
e.g. Metacarpophalangeal joint
e. Ellipsoid joint
E.g.radiocarpal joint
f. Sellar/Saddle joint
- between the trapezium and the metacarpal of the thumb
g. Plane joint
- between two carpal bones

B. ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF MOVEMENT ALLOWED

1. Synarthroses (immovable joints)
- articulating surfaces are almost in direct contact with the uniting medium
(fibrous tissue, hyaline or fibrocartilage)
- example: sutures, gomphosis
2. Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joints)
- articulating surfaces connected by a wide disk of fibrocartilage
- example: intervertebral disk
3.Diarthroses (freely movable joints)
- with synovial cavity
MOVEMENT ALLOWED IN SYNOVIAL JOINT

1. FLEXION
- decreasing the angle between two bones

2. EXTENSION
- increasing the angle between two bones

3. ABDUCTION
- moving the one away from the midline

4. ADDUCTION
- moving the bone toward the midline

5. ROTATION
- moving the bone around a centralaxis; the plane of motion is perpendicular to
the axis

6. CIRCUMDUCTION
- moving the bone so that the end of it describes a circle and the sides of it
describe a cone

7. SUPINATION
- moving the bones of the forearm so that the radius and the ulna are parallel; if
the arm is at the side of the body the palm is moved from a posterior to an
anterior position

8. PRONATION
- moving the bones of the forearn so that the radius and the ulna are not parallel; if the arm
is at the side of the body the palm is moved from an anterior to a posterior position.

9. EVERSION
- moving the sole of the foot outward at the ankle and intertarsal joints

10. INVERSION
- moving the sole of the foot inward at the ankle and intertarsal joints

MOVEMENT ALLOWED IN AMPHIARTHROSIS

GLIDING
- simple slipping af articulating flat surfaces

e.g. Intervertebral disk movement

 CLINICAL CORRELATION

1. FRACTURE
- A break in a bone or cartilage.

- A fracture can be compound or simple depending on whether or not the skin is

broken.

- It is described as complete or incomplete depending on whether or no the

fracture line extends partially or entirely through the bone.

2. VERTEBRAL COLUMN INJURIES

a. Exaggerations of the spinal curvature are termed

- Kyphosis when the posterior curvature is accentuated in the thoracic area.

- Lordosis when the anterior curvature is accentuated in the lumba region

- Scoliosis when there is a lateral curvature and rotation of the vertebrae

b. Herniated intervertebral disk when the outer covering (the annulus fibrosus)
ruptures owing to trauma and the inner core (the nucleus pulposus) protrudes

3. DISORDERS OF JOINTS

a. Bursitis is the infl ammation of the synovial bursa. It may result from excess stress,
local infl ammation, or systemic disease.

b. Arthritis is the general term for infl ammation of joints

c. Degenerative joint disease comes from prolonged wear and tear on joints.

d. Primary fibrositis (“Rheumatism” or “lumbago”) in the lower back region is an

inflammation of the fi brous connective tissue of joints.

e. Tenosynovitis: the tendon sheaths become infl ammed and may deter movement of
the involved joints.