Chemistry Notes

Terms Descriptions
Sublimation Changes of state from solid to gas
Deposition Change of state from gas to solid
Condensation Change of state from gas to liquid
(Exothermic) (Energy is released to the surroundings
when a substance condenses or freezes)
Freezing (solidifying) Change of state from liquid to solid
(Exothermic)
Evaporation Change of state from liquid to gas but
(Endothermic) occurs only from the surface
(Energy need to be taken in to melt, boil
or evaporate a substance)
Melting Change of state from solid to liquid
(Endothermic)
Boiling Liquid to gas but occurs throughout the
(Endothermic) liquid
Melting point The temperature at which a solid turn to
liquid
Boiling point The temperature at which a liquid turn
into gas
Freezing point The temperature at which a liquid turn
into solid
Solvent A substance which dissolves another
substance
(E.g., water, ethanol, hexane)
Solute A substance which dissolves in a solvent
(Can be solids, liquids or gases) (E.g., salt)
Solution A homogeneous mixture of a solute in a
solvent
Homogeneous mixture A mixture that has been uniformly
combined (E.g., salt & water)

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Heterogeneous mixture A mixture that contains visually
distinguishable components
(E.g., Cereal in milk)
Aqueous solution Forms when a solute dissolves in water
Saturated solution Contains the maximum concentration of
solute dissolved in a solvent
(At a specified temperature)
Solubility The maximum amount of a substance
that will dissolve in a given amount of
solvent (at a specified temperature)
Anhydrous Does not contain water
Hydrated The crystals have water chemically
combined in their structure
(Water of crystallization)
Diffusion The spreading out of particles from an
area of higher concentration to lower
concentration
Speed of diffusion of a gas depends on
the relative molecular masses M r
(Lighter mass diffuses faster)
Happens faster in warmer temperatures
Atom The smallest particle that cannot be
broken down by chemical means
Molecule An uncharged particle made of two or
more atoms joined together
Ion An atom or group of atoms that carries
positive or negative electrical charge
Protons (nucleons) (In the nucleus) positive charge
Neutrons (nucleons) (In the nucleus) no charge – neutral
Electrons (Outside the nucleus) negative charge
Atomic Number The number of protons in an atom
Mass Number The number of protons and neutrons

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(Always the largest number among
the two, shown in the periodic table)
Isotopes Atoms of same element which have
same numbers of protons and electrons
but different numbers of neutrons
Has the same chemical properties but
different physical properties
*Uses: Cancer curing, sterilizing the (E.g., density)
medical garments
Elements Substances that cannot be chemically
broken down into simpler substances
Mixtures Contains two or more elements or
(Can be separated physically) compounds that are not chemically
bonded together
Compounds Made up of two or more different
(Cannot be separated physically) elements chemically bonded together
Electronic Configuration
Periods (8) Horizontal rows in the periodic table
Groups (18) Vertical columns in the periodic table;
Electrons in outer shell
Noble Gases Have a full outer shell of electrons,
unreactive and very stable;
Cannot lose or gain electrons easily
(Group 8)
Halogens Five toxic and non-metallic elements
(Left of the noble gases, Group 7)
Reacts with metals to form solid
compounds
Alkali Metals Soft, shiny, low-melting, highly reactive
metals
(Group 1, except for Hydrogen)
Reacts with water forming hydrogen
Monatomic Exist as single atoms, do not combine
with other elements to form
compounds

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Retention factor R f Comparing how far the spots have
moved from the base line compared
with the solvent front
distance travelled by substance
Rt =
distance travelled by solvent
Locating agent Used to locate colorless spots by
reacting with the chemicals in the
colorless spots and forming colored
compounds
Solvent front A line at the top of the purple drawn by
pencil
Filtrate The solution which passes through the
filter paper
Residue The solid that stays on the filter paper
Volatile Easily evaporated
Immiscible Liquids not forming a homogeneous
mixture when mixed
Miscible Forms a homogeneous mixed when
mixed together
1 decimeter cubed (dm3) 1000 cm3
Stable OCTET of electrons The full outer shell of 8 electrons
Decomposition Type of chemical reaction where a
compound breaks down to form two or
more substances
Synthesis Where the substance is formed by the
combination of two or more other
substances
Ionic Bonding The electrostatic force of attraction
(Metals + Non-metals) between oppositely charged ions
(Transfer electrons)
Covalent Bonding Two non-metal atoms reacting together
(Non-metals + Non-metal) to share pairs of electrons
Metallic Bonding The strong electrostatic attraction
between the giant lattice of positive
ions and the sea of delocalized electrons

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Cations Positive ions
Anions Negative ions
Intermolecular forces The weak forces between the separate
molecules
Ionic lattice The three-dimensional network of ions
Empirical formula The formula showing the simplest
whole number ratio of the different
atoms or ions in a compound
Reactants The substances that we add at the start
and are changed during the reaction
Products Substances formed by the reaction
Diatomic molecules Two atoms per molecule
Spectator ions The ions that didn’t take part in the
ionic reaction
Ionic equation A symbol equation that shows only
those ions and molecules that react
Relative Atomic mass ( Ar ¿ The mass of an atom by comparing their
mass with the same number of carbon-
12 atoms
Relative Molecular mass ( M r ¿ The sum of the relative atomic masses
of all the atoms shown in the formula of
a molecule
Relative Formula mass The sun of the relative masses of all the
ions shown in the formula of an ionic
compound
Mole The amount of substance that contains
6.02 ×10 atoms, ions or molecules
23

Stoichiometry The ratio of each reactant and product

in a balanced equation
Limiting reactant The reaction stops when the limiting
reactant is used up
Titration The concentration of alkali needed to
completely react with an acid using a
procedure (acid-base titration)
Mobile electrons Free-moving electrons
Electrical conductor Substances which have low resistance to
the passage of electricity

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Electrical insulator Substances that resist the flow on an
electric current
Electrolysis The decomposition (breaking down) of
an ionic compound when
molten/aqueous solution, by the
passage of an electric current
Electrolyte The molten/aqueous ionic compound
that conducts electricity and
decomposes during electrolysis
Electrodes Rods that carry the electrical current to
and from the electrolyte
Positive electrode Anode
Negative electrode Cathode
Inert Do not react with electrolyte or the
products of electrolysis
Oxidation - A reaction where electrons are
lost
- Gaining oxygen to a substance
- Losing hydrogen from a substance
- Increasing the oxidation numbers
Reduction - A reaction where electrons are
gained
- Losing oxygen from a substance
- Gaining hydrogen to a substance
- Decreasing the oxidation number
Ionic half equation Type of equation which shows what’s
happening at only one of the electrodes
Electroplating Used to put a thin layer of one metal o
top of another metal using electrolysis
Cryolite Improves the conductivity and lowers
melting points of electrolyte, reducing
energy costs
Enthalpy change The thermal energy change which
occurs during chemical reaction
Activation energy ( E a ¿ The minimum energy that colliding
particles must have in order to react
Bond Energy The amount of energy needed to break

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 one mole of a particular bond in one
mole of gaseous molecules
Petroleum (crude oil) A complex mixture of compounds
containing carbon and hydrogen
Combustion An exothermic chemical reaction
between a fuel and an oxidizing agent
Complete combustion Occurs when hydrocarbons or other
fuels burn in excess oxygen
(Products: carbon dioxide & water)
Incomplete combustion Occurs when there is not enough
oxygen to burn the fuel completely
(Products: carbon monoxide & H2O)
Hydrocarbons Compounds which contain only
hydrogen and carbon
Rate of reaction How rapidly the products are formed
from the reactants
Independent variable The variable that is altered during a
scientific experiment
Dependent variable The variable being tested or measured
Control variable The variable that is kept the same
Catalyst A substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction, by lowering the activation
energy so that greater proportion of the
collisions between particles are
successful (E.g., enzymes)
Collision Frequency The number of successful collisions per
second
Redox reaction Where reduction and oxidation take
place at the same time
Oxidizing Agent A substance which oxidizes another
(In a redox reaction) substance, and is itself reduced
Reducing Agent A substance which reduces another
(In a redox reaction) substance and is itself oxidized

Solid, Liquid and Gas

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State of Arrangement Motion Separation Volume & Shape
Matters
Solid Fixed pattern Only vibrate Very Definite shape & volume
close/packed
together
Liquid Random; no Slides past each Close together Definite volume; take
fixed pattern other the shape of container
Gas Random Move very rapidly Very far apart No definite shape or
volume

Physical Properties of Metals & Non-Metals

Metals Non-Metals
Density High Low
Melting point/ High Low
Boiling point
Hardness Hard Soft
(Except grp 1 metals)
Ductility Ductile Not ductile
Malleability Malleable Not malleable
Sonority Sonorous Not sonorous
Conductivity Electricity & heat Insulators

Chemical Properties of Metals & Non-Metals

Color on litmus paper
Reactions with acids
Forming of ions
Metals
Red to blue (alkali)
Can react with acids
Form positive ions;
Always give their
electrons away
Non-metals
Blue to red (acidic)
Cannot react with acids
Form negative ions;
Always accept electrons from
metals

Cooling Curve

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Heating curve

Different methods of separating substances

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Types of methods Separations Materials used
Chromatography Separating two or more - Paper
dissolved solids in a solution chromatogram
(or) - Locating agents
Separating pigments (colored
substances) using filter paper
Simple distillation Separating a liquid from a - Condenser
solution
Fractional distillation Separating any solution - Fractionating
containing liquids with different column
boiling points - Condenser
(The lowest boiling point distils first)
Filtration Separating undissolved solids - Filter paper
from liquids - Filter funnel
Decanting & Separating liquid from an - Centrifuge
centrifugation insoluble solid
Crystallization To obtain a crystalline solid from - Evaporating
solution basin
Solvent extraction Separating two solutes dissolved - Separating
in a solvent funnel

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