CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Physical Quantities and Units................................................................................................................2

Chapter 2 Kinematics.............................................................................................................................................8
Chapter 3 Dynamics & Momentum.....................................................................................................................14
Chapter 4 Forces, density and pressure..............................................................................................................21
Chapter 5 Work, Energy & Power........................................................................................................................26
Chapter 6 Deformation of solids.........................................................................................................................31
Chapter 7 Waves.................................................................................................................................................35
Chapter 8 Superposition......................................................................................................................................41
Chapter 9 Electricity............................................................................................................................................47
Chapter 10 D.C. Circuits.......................................................................................................................................50
Chapter 11 Particle Physics..................................................................................................................................58

1
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

1.1 Physical Quantities

Estimation

1. Diameter of a galaxy 1.2x10²¹m

2. Distance from Earth to sun 1.5x10¹¹m
3. Length of a car 3m to 5m
4. Diameter of an atom 3x10⁻¹⁰m
5. Diameter of a nucleus 6x10⁻¹⁵m
6. Mass of an apple 100g to 150g
7. Kinetic energy of a runner 3.5kJ to 4kJ
8. Average vol. of human head 2500cm³ to 4000cm³

1.2 SI Units

Based Quantity Unit

Length m
Time s
Mass kg
Current A
Temperature K
Luminosity cd
Amount of substance mol

Derived Quantity Unit Base Unit

Force N kgms⁻²
Energy J kgm²s⁻²
Frequency Hz s⁻¹
Charge C As
Voltage V kgm²s⁻³A⁻¹
Power W kgm²s⁻³

2
Example 1.1

Q) Find SI vase unit of k and determine the quantity

α Q1 Q 2
K= 2 r = distance Q = Charge α = Nm⁻²C⁻²
r

Homogeneity of an Equation

 Check if left and right equations add up to the same unit

 Check if units are identical on each side, homogenous equations have same units on
both sides.

Example 1.2

Example 1.3

3
1.3 Errors and Uncertainties

Measuring Techniques

Accuracy: Refers to the closeness of a measured value to its true or known value

Precision: Refers to the closeness of a set of measured values to each other

Note: The graphs need to be symmetrical to be accurate and/or precise

Systematic Error: This error is mainly caused due to fault in the instrument, can’t be
eliminated by repeating and averaging. Example: Zero error

Random Error: Causes readings to be scattered around the accepted value. It can be
improved by repeating and averaging. Example: Reaction time error

Random error affects precision while systematic error affects accuracy

4
Uncertainty: Total range of values in which a measured value can be in

Uncertainty calculations:

Δa - absolute uncertainty
%a - percentage uncertainty
Δa
- fractional uncertainty
a

Example 1.4

For addition and subtraction

b = 20 ± 2 c = 15 ± 2

5
For multiplication and division

b = 20 ± 2 c=5±1

Can’t use the formulas for addition & subtraction method as the equation is not
homogenous

Example 1.6

Percentage uncertainty with indices

b = 10 ± 1 c = 5 ± 0.2

Addition and subtraction-

a = b³ + c²

a = 1000 + 25 = 1025

6
The uncertainties are repeated 3 times 2 times for b and c

Division and Multiplication

a = b³/c² b = 10 ± 1 c = 5 ± 0.2

All rules are same, just multiply powers with fractional uncertainties.

7
1.4 Scalar and Vectors

Scaler quantities: only magnitude Vector quantities: magnitude and direction

Conditions:

 The vector diagram will be a closed triangle

 The vectors will follow head to tail method
 No double arrows on the vector that represent
force opposing the resultant force

Example 1.7

Formulas (when θ is from horizontal) | Formulas (when θ is from vertical)

v H =v R × cos θ v v =v R ×sin θ | v H =v R × sinθ v v =v R ×cos θ

When a vector is resolved, the values of the component of the vector can be obtained in
horizontal and vertical direction

8
KINEMATICS

2.1 Equations of Motion

Distance: Total length travelled, irrespective of the direction of motion.

Displacement: Shortest distance moved between two points.

Speed: Rate of change of distance.

Velocity: Rate of change of displacement.

Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity. (Negative acceleration is known as deceleration)

9
 Displacement-Time graph of an object thrown from
a cliff

 The starting point is considered the

maximum point
 The ball never reaches this height due to
A tennis ball
loss in energy to surroundings
bouncing on a
 The ball accelerates when falling and
decelerates when rising
 At the ground, displacement = 0

flat surface

Do not curve
it like wave.
Keep a small
gap to show
that the ball
is in contact with the ground

A tennis ball thrown vertically upwards and then returns to same point (no air resistance)

 Velocity decreases as it moves up

 Acceleration while moving is due to gravity, it will
always be negative as the gravitational force is always
acting down
10
 Resultant force is the gravitational force which is
constant so gradient of the graph will be constant
  Acceleration negative first
because velocity is decreasing
despite being positive
 Acceleration negative while falling
down as the velocity is in the
opposite direction

Equations of motion (for uniform acceleration)

 v=u+at
1 2
 s=ut+ a t
2

 s= ( )
u+ v
2
t

11
  2 2
v =u +2 as

Example 2.1

Q) The average acceleration of a sprinter from rest to velocity of 9.0ms⁻¹ is 6.0ms⁻². What
distance does she cover in this acceleration?

A) 9² = 0² + 2 x s s = 6.75m

Q) A car travels at 15ms⁻¹ and reaches a maximum velocity of 30ms⁻¹, its acceleration is
2.5ms⁻²

I. Find for how long does it accelerate

II. Find the distance it travels during the acceleration.

A)

I.

II.

12
Experiment to measure acceleration of free fall

 Electromagnet is used to ensure initial velocity is 0ms⁻¹.

 Steel sphere used to ensure air resistance has no significant effect on the sphere’s
motion due to its large mass.
 The sphere is smooth to minimize air resistance.

13
 1 2
Formula - s=u+ a t
2

Example 2.2
Two-dimensional motion under a constant force (Projectile)

 Initial velocity (Uv) is 0ms⁻¹. As the ball moves it gains a vertical velocity due to
acceleration of free fall.
 Horizontal velocity (Uh) remains constant as the force is constant.

Example 2.3

Uv= 30sin(25)=12.68ms⁻¹ Uh=30cos(25)=27.19ms⁻¹

14
 a) t1 = ?

v=u+at
0=Uv±9.81 t
−12.68
t= = 1.29s
−9.81
b) s = ?
1 2
s=ut+ a t
2
1 2
s=Uv ×t+ x −9.81t
2
s = 8.19m
c) x = Uh x 2(t1) + 0.5×a(2t1)² a=0
= 70.15m

Q) A stone is thrown from the top of a 45m cliff with initial horizonal velocity v = 15ms⁻¹.
How far does it travel when it reaches the ground, from the cliff?

A)

Q) An

electron moving at 2x10⁷ms⁻¹ horizontally enters a uniform field. It

accelerates at
5x10¹⁵ms⁻²
perpendicular to its
initial velocity. What
is the magnitude &
direction of velocity
of electron as it
leaves the field?

15
A)

DYNAMICS & MOMENTUM

3.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion

16
  Newtons 1st Law
An object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion along a straight line until a
resultant force acts on the object

Inertia: It is the reluctance of an object to change its state of motion. Larger the
mass, greater the inertia.

 Newtons 2nd Law

The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the
resultant force and the change in momentum is in the direction of resultant force.
mv−mu
F= momentum = mass x velocity
t

 Newtons 3rd Law

Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
weight = mass x gravity

Acceleration of free-fall: All objects fall with the same uniform acceleration due to
gravitational attraction of the earth in absence of air which is known as “free-fall”
Acceleration of free-fall- g = 9.81ms⁻²

3.2 Non-uniform motion

Friction: The force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers and material
elements sliding against each other

17
 1. Fluid Friction: Friction between two layers of fluid or friction between a solid
inside a fluid, when there is relative motion, it is called viscous drag
Factors affecting drag -
 Drag or speed
 More the viscosity of a liquid (thicker the liquid), more the drag
 Shape, or front surface area of an object

2. Dry Friction: Solid-solid friction, opposes lateral motion of two solid surfaces
 Static Friction – Friction between non-moving surfaces, inversely proportional
to speed
 Kinetic Friction – Friction between moving surfaces, inversely proportional to
speed

Terminal Velocity: The velocity of a body falling through a resistive fluid does not increase
indefinitely, but eventually reaches a maximum velocity, called the “terminal velocity”.
The force due to air resistance with speed. When this resistive force has reached a value
equal and opposite to the weight of the falling body, the body no longer accelerates and
continues at uniform velocity. This is the case of motion with non-uniform acceleration. The
acceleration starts off with a value of g, but decreases to zero at the time when terminal
velocity is achieved.

Terminal Velocity: The constant velocity reached as the acceleration of a moving object
decreases and becomes 0ms⁻²

18
The obj must have a const force and air res. that gradually increases due to obj acc⬆

3.3 Linear momentum and its conversation

Momentum: It is the product of mass and velocity

ρ=m× v

From Newtons 2nd law

F=mxa
v−u
=m( )
t

mv−mu Δρ
F= F=
t Δt

F x Δt = Δ ρ (F x Δt ) is impulse- Change in momentum

Example: A ball is thrown at a wall

 The force exerted on the ball

and wall will be the same due
to Newtons 3rd Law
 The direction of the forces
will be opposite to each
other.

19
Δρ = ρF – ρi

= -mv – mu

Δρ
F= (will be negative in this case)
t

Collisions

Scenario 1 (Collides and moves in opposite direction)

Total momentum of a system is

constant if it is isolated. (no
external forces)

m1(u1) +m2(-u2) = m1(-v1) + m2(v2) Based on law of conservation of momentum

Scenario 2 (collides and pushes forwards)

m1u1 = m1(v1) + m2(v2)

20
Scenario 3 (collides and gets attached)

m1u1=v(m1+m2)

Scenario 4 (explosion)

The velocities after explosion must be equal and opposite to keep momentum at 0
Note: Explosion means two objects initially start at the same point and then move away
from each other.

Law of conservation of momentum:

In an isolated system the total momentum of the system before collision is equal to the
total momentum of the system error after collision.

Graph of momentum X

21
Elastic & Inelastic Collision

If

the sum of KE (Kinetic Energy) of a system before collision is equal to the sum of KE after
collision, such collisions are called Elastic collisions.
Relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation in a perfectly elastic
collision.
*A car moves at 20ms⁻¹ towards you and you move towards it at 10ms⁻¹, the R.S. is 30ms⁻¹

When objects move in opposite directions

u1 + u2 = v1 + v2
approach separation

When objects move in the same direction

u1 - u2 = v1 – v2 (larger – smaller value)

approach separation

22
Conservation of momentum & newtons 3rd law

 During collision, the force experienced by

object A is equal and opposite to force
Δρ
experienced by object B since, F = and
Δt
time of contact for both objects is same, the
change in momentum must be equal.

Two-dimensional momentum

Case 1:

The horizontal momentum before and after will Horizontal components in the same
be equal direction
Vertical momentum will be equal before and after Vertical comp. in opp. direction negative

Case 2:

23
Total, vertical and horizontal momentum are conserved.

FORCES, DENSITY AND PRESSURE

24
Fundamental Forces:

i) Gravitational Forces: Every body is attracted to one another, the gravitational

force F between two bodies of mass m1 and m2 are separated by d is given by
m1 m2
F=G 2 G = 6.67 x 10⁻¹¹Nm²Kg⁻²
d

ii) Electrostatic Forces: The force acting between two charged particles is called
electrostatic force, if two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance d, the
force between them is found by “Coulomb’s Law”
q1 q 2
F=k 2 If F is + it is repulsive, if it is – it is negative
d

iii) Electromagnetic Forces: Einstein’s special theory of relativity showed that both
magnetic and electrostatic forces are the same type which is called
electromagnetic force

iv) Strong Nuclear Force: A strong attractive force between nucleons in the atomic
nucleus that holds the nucleus together. At closer range these forces are some
100 times stronger than electromagnetic force

v) Weak Nuclear Force: The force that causes atoms to radioactively decay is called
weak nuclear force. Ex. In beta decay when a nucleon decays to a proton
with the emission of an electron. Its typical field strength is 10⁻¹¹ times than
electromagnetic force.
vi) Upthrust: Is the upwards force experienced when an object is placed in fluid, it is
caused due to the difference in pressure on the upper and lower surface on an
object, (Higher in liquids than gases as higher density)

vii) Viscous Force: The frictional force is a fluid is called viscous force or viscous drag.
Viscosity is directionally proportional to speed

25
4.1 Turning effects of forces

Component of weight on a slope

 Friction is assumed to be
constant throughout the
surface
 Normal reaction force
present to cancel wcosθ

Wcosθ = Normal reaction force, F1

Wsinθ = Friction, Fr (when object falls at constant speed)

Wsinθ – Friction = m x a (when object is accelerating F= m x a) Resultant Force

Centre of gravity: Is the point through which all weight of an object seems to act from

Moment: Product of force and perpendicular distance acting on an object from a fixed
point.

Principle Moment: The total clockwise

moment acting on an object about a fixed
point is equal to the total anticlockwise
moment about the same point
Conditions:

 Resultant moment on the

object is zero
 Resultant force on the object
is zero

26
Always find vertical component of the force to find the moment.
Example 4.1

Torque of a couple

The product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between them.
Torque = F x d
Conditions:

 The forces must be equal.

 The forces must be in opposite directions.

4.2 Equilibrium of forces

Double Pivot

Moment about pivot A

CW moment = F4 x d2 + F3 x d1
ACW moment = F2 x d3

(F1 not taken as perpendicular distance is 0)

27
At equilibrium:

F1 + F2 = F4 + F3
let F4 = 50N F3 = 30N d1 = 2m d2 = 1m d3 = 4m
CW = 50 x 1 +30 x 2 = 110Nm
ACW = 4 F2
F2 = 110/4 = 27.5N
F1 = 80 – 27.5 = 52.5N

28
4.3 Density and pressure

Density: Mass per unit volume

Formula: ρ = m/v

Pressure: Force acting perpendicularly on per unit area

Formula: P = F/A

Pressure in liquids

P at lowest point on container due to liquid:

P = F/A
P = W/A w=mxg
mxg
P= m=ρxv v = vol of liq.
A

ρxv xg
P=
A
ρx A xh x g
P=
A
P = ρhg

Upthrust: Upwards force acting on an object when it is fully or partially submerged in a

fluid. The size of the upthrust experienced by a body is equal to the weight of the fluid
displacement by the body. Upthrust only increases until the object is fully submerged. Once
the object is fully submerged, the upthrust no longer increases even if the object sinks
deeper

29
Method 1:

Upthrust, F = ΔP x A
P1 = h1 x ρ x g P2 = h2 x ρ x g

ΔP = P2 – P1
F = (h2 x ρ x g – h1 x ρ x g) x A
= (h2 – h1) ρg x A
h2 – h1 = Δh
Δh x A = Vo
F = ρF x g x Vo

Main way to increase upthrust is by increasing P2, this can be done by increasing the volume
of the object.

Method 2:

Upthrust = W of Fluid displaced

U = mF x g
m=ρxv
U = ρ x VF x g VF = Vo
U = ρ x Vo x g

30
WORK, ENERGY & POWER

5.1 Energy conservation

Energy: The ability of an object to do work

Work done: Product of force applied on an object and the distance moved in the direction
of force. (W = F x s)

One Joule: Amount of work done when a force of one newton causes an object to move
through a distance of one meter

Resolving force in the direction of displacement:

While calculating work done, the force applied has to be resolved in the direction of the
object’s displacement

1. Horizontal component increases as θ decreases

2. Vertical component increases as θ increases
Work done by gas in a
sealed container
 Pressure is constant
when work is done by
the gas
 A = surface area of the
surface of the piston
 A x Δx = Change in
volume

31
Work done = F x Δx
by the gas = P x A x Δx
= P x ΔV

The gas expands due to the increase in temperature. This would normally lead to decrease
in pressure. However, the increase in the temperature balances out the pressure
The gas present inside the cylinder is kept at a constant pressure P, the cross-sectional area
of the piston is given as A, as the gas expands it does work on the piston and moves it by a
distance of Δx.

Principle of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be

converted from one form to another. The total energy of an isolated system is always
conserved.

Conservation of machinal energy:

For falling object: Let us consider an object of mass m is falling towards the earth from
rest

A.

At point A: Total energy, T = KE + PE

= 0 + mgh

= mgh

At point B: Total energy, T = PE + KE

= mg(h-x) + ½mv²

= v² = u² + 2as

= 0² + 2gx

= 2gx

Total E = mgh – mgx + ½ x 2gx

= mgh -mgx +mgx

At point C: Total energy T = PE + KE

= 0 + ½mv²

32
 = ½m(u² + 2as)

= ½m(0² + 2gh)

Total energy = mgh = constant

Power: Rate of change of energy transfer unit: W/Js⁻¹

= Work/time
= Force x displacement / time
= Force x velocity

Efficiency: The ratio of output power to the input power is called efficiency

Power output/Power input x 100%

Useful workdone/total workdone x100%

33
5.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

Types of energy:

1. Gravitational Potential Energy:

Assumption: Gravitational field is uniform so g is constant. The object is raised at a

constant speed so F is equal to the weight. The GPE of an object changes with the
change of its position in the gravitational field. The higher it goes from the earth’s
surface, larger will be its GPE.
(g is constant)

Example:
A person of mass 60kg moves to point A first from point B and then from C.
Compare the work done in each case.

34
 The work done in this case is equal for both AB and the AC. The height gained is 10m
in both cases and the work done is done against the man’s weight. So, work done =
GPE gained.

2. Kinetic Energy:
Derivation: As the object falls the

work done = F x Δh
= W x Δh [F = w]
= m x a x Δh [w = m x a]
2
v
= m× × Δh [v²=u²+2as u²=0]
2 Δh
= 0.5mv²

Assumption: Gravitational field is uniform and air resistance is negligible.

u² = 0 as the object starts from rest.
The kinetic energy of an object depends on its speed, if the speed is doubled, K.E.
increases by 4 times.

3. Elastic/Strain Energy – Energy due to stretching or compressing an object

When an object like spring is compressed or stretched against its force towards
equilibrium, work has to be done which is stored as potential energy in the object.
This potential energy is the elastic potential energy.

Elastic P.E. = Workdone due to stretch or compression on an object

4. Electric Energy – Energy associated with moving (+) or (-) electric charges

35
 A form of energy related to the position of an electric charge is an electric field. This
is also called electric energy.

Electric P.E. = V x Q V = Potential difference Q = Charge moved

5. Sound Energy – A mixture of P.E. and K.E. of the particles in the wave

6. Wind Energy – A particular type of K.E.

7. Light Energy – Energy of electromagnetic waves

8. Solar Energy - Light energy from the sun which also contains heat energy

9. Heat Energy – Form of energy which is transferred from one place to another due to
temperature difference

10. Chemical Energy – Energy released during chemical reactions

11. Nuclear Energy – Energy associated with particles in the nuclei of atoms

36
DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

6.1 Stress and strain

Types of forces causing deformation

Materials can be deformed either by compressing it or stretching it. Compressive force
shortens the length and stretching force (tension) increases the length of the material

2 understand and use the terms load, extension, compression and limit of proportionality

Load – Force exerted on a surface

Extension – Increase in length of an object due to load

Compression – Decrease in length of an object due to load

Limit of Proportionality – This is the point beyond which the extension of a material does
not remain proportional to the force applied

Hooke’s Law – The extension of a material is directly proportional to the force applied on it
until it reaches the limit of proportionality

Spring Constant

F = kx F = Force (N) x = extension (m) k = constant (Nm⁻¹)

Force is directly proportional to extension

Spring Combinations

Springs can be in two combinations

1) Parallel
The new spring constants of the 2
springs will be added to form the new

37
 spring constant
k = k1 +k2

2) Series
The new spring constant will be the sum of the
reciprocals of the 2 springs.
1/k = 1/k1 + 1/k2

Stress – (Pressure) that acts within the object

δ = F/A

The force exerted per unit area of cross-section of a

material, can be both tensile and compressive

Strain – The percentage of the extension of an object

relative to its original length
ε – Epsilon

The ratio of extension of a material to its original length

ε = Δx / x

Young Modulus –
E = δ/ε E = Pressure (Pa)

38
The Young modulus is the measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in
length with an added load ie. how stiff a material is. This gives information about the
elasticity of a material. The Young Modulus is defined as the ratio of stress and strain

Determining the YM of a metal wire –

E = stress / strain
E = F/A / Δx/x
E = Fx / ΔxA
E = mgx / πr²Δx

Two wires AB and CD of same material and of the same diameter are hung from a fixed
support.

AB is the experimental wire and CD is the reference wire. A main scale (S) is attached with
reference wire and a vernier scale V is attached to the experimental wire which can move up
and down along the side of the main scale without friction. A fixed weight W is hung at the
bottom of CD so that it remains straight. Variable loads are placed are placed on the wire AB
and extensions are determined. The radius of the cross-section of the wire is measured by
screw gauge.

Different types of material

Ductile – The materials which show plastic deformation are ductile. (metals)

Brittle – Materials which break or crack with little deformation are called brittle (glass)

Tough – Materials which are able to withstand impact forces without breaking and require a
large force to produce a small plastic deformation are called tough (wood)

Hard materials – The type of materials which resist plastic deformation usually by denting
are called hard materials (diamond)

Malleable – Materials which show large plastic deformation before cracking or breaking are
called malleable. Malleable materials can be reshaped easily without fracturing (gold)

Polymeric materials – The materials which are highly elastic but need very small stress for
large strain are polymeric materials (rubber)

39
6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour

Elastic deformation – when the load is removed, the object will return to its original shape

Plastic deformation – when the load is removed, the object will not return to its original
shape or length. This is beyond the elastic limit

Elastic Limit – The point beyond which the material does not behave elastically and is
permanently deformed

Workdone -

The area under a force extension graph gives the energy stored in the material. Energy
stored during loading is more than the energy released during unloading if the elastic limit is
crossed, the difference in energy is converted to internal energy in the material.

40
When a force is applied on a spring, work is done on it, causing energy to be stored. The
energy stored due to stretching or compressing of a material is called elastic potential or
strain energy.

Workdone for area under a graph of F-Δx

wd = ½ F Δx
F = kx
wd = ½ k Δx²

WAVES

7.1 Progressive Waves

Wave motion is the transfer of energy and momentum from one point of the medium to
another point of the medium without actual transport of matter between two points

Progressive wave – A wave that carries energy from one place to another

Displacement – The distance moved in a specific direction from the equilibrium (d)

Amplitude – The maximum displacement (A)

Period – Time Taken per complete wave (T)

Frequency – The number of complete wave cycles per second (f) = 1/T

Wavelength – The distance between two points of a wave that are in phase
or the displacement travelled by a wavefront as it returns its previous phase (λ)

Speed – Wave speed is the distance a wave travels in a given amount of time (v)

41
Phase difference – The phase difference is the difference in the phase angle of the two
waves.
Can be measured in angles, radians and fractions of a wavelength

1. In Phase
When the oscillation of two waves occurs such
that
their crests and troughs a line. The waves are said
to
be in phase. For 2 waves to be in phase,
conditions
are;
Phase difference - 0, 2π, 4π, nπ n = even number
Path difference - 0, 1λ, 2λ, nλ n = integer

2. Anti-phase
When oscillation of two waves occur such that the
crest of one wave a lines with the trough of
another wave, the waves are said to be in anti-
phase.
For 2 waves to be in anti-phase, conditions are;

Phase difference -π, 3π, 5π, nπ n = odd

number
Path difference – 0.5λ, 1.5λ, (n+0.5) λ n= integer
3. Out of phase
When neither the crests nor the troughs a line with
each other

Phase and path differences are completely random

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O.)

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is a common electronic device used to study waveforms,
measure voltage and short intervals of time.

Y-gain & Time Base

1) Y-gain or Voltage gain

This amplifies the deflection of electron beam. The amount of deflection depends on the

42
input voltage at Y-plates. Y-gain also determines the sensitivity of the oscilloscope.
Unit: Volts per division, V/div

A Y-gain of 1.0 V/div means that for an input of 2.5 V, the deflection would be 2.5 divisions
(= 2.5 / 1.0 = 2.5).

2) Time base
When time base is on, a voltage is applied to the X-plate. Time base controls the speed at
which the electron beam sweep across the screen from left to right horizontally, then jump
back to left plate and the sweeping repeats. This is done by altering the frequency of the
time base

Wave speed

The speed at which energy is transmitted by a wave is known as the wave speed v. Wave
speed (ms⁻¹) is the product of frequency (s⁻¹) and wavelength (m). For a wave of constant
speed if the frequency decreases the wavelength must increase.

Wave speed = wavelength / period

v = 1/T × λ f = 1/T

Speed of sound in air – 330ms⁻¹ Speed of light (EM waves) – 3x10⁸ms⁻¹

Energy is transferred by a progressive wave

Intensity – Energy incident per unit area per unit second Wm⁻²
P
Intensity is found by Power divided by area incident upon I =
A

43
For spherical area –
P
I= 2 I α 1/r² I α A² A = Amplitude
4Πr

7.2 Transverse and longitudinal

waves

Transverse waves – A wave in

which the particles of the medium
travel perpendicularly to the
direction of the motion of wave

Longitudinal waves – A wave in

which the particles of the medium
travel parallelly to the direction of
the motion of the wave

Compression – The point in a sound wave at which the air pressure is at maximum

Rarefaction – A region in a sound wave where the air pressure is less than its mean value

44
7.3 Doppler effect for sounds waves

The relative shift of wavelength or frequency between two objects (source & observer) due
to their relative motion.
If the wavelength between the two objects increases relative to each other.

It can be concluded that

the objects are receding
from each other, it is
known as redshift
If the wavelength
between them decreases
it is blueshift.

45
Calculating the change in frequency observed due to the motion of the source

f s × vS
f 0=
v ± vs
fs = f of source fo = f observedv = wave speed vs = speed of source Ts = period
of source
To = period of observed d1 = travelled by wave d2 = d travelled by source

Approaching

d1 = v × Ts d2 = vs × Ts Δd = d1 – d2 = v×Ts – vs×Ts = Ts(v-vs)

To = Ts(v-vs)/v = Δd/v
fo = 1/To = 1/Ts × v/(v-vs) = (fs×v)/(v-vs)

Receding

d1=v×Ts d2=vs×Ts Δd=d1+d2 = vTs + vsTs

To = Δd/v = Ts(v+vs)/vfo = 1/To = 1/Ts × v/(v+vs)

46
7.4 Electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic wave – A transverse wave travelling through space as vibrations of electric

and magnetic fields

All electromagnetic waves have the speed of light c in vacuum

All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves

47
The wavelength of visible light is 400nm (red) – 700nm (blue/violet)

7.5 Polarisation

A plane polarised wave is

a transverse wave in
which the vibrations
occur in only one of the
directions at right angle
to the direction in which
the wave energy is
travelling.

Longitudinal waves are already polarised, they already oscillate in only one direction.

Intensity of polarised light passing through analyser

48
When a plane polarised light is
passed through a second
polariser (analyser), the
intensity of polarised light
changes as the angle of analyser
is changed with respect to the
polariser

Initially if the analyser is placed

such that both polaroids have
their polarising directions
parallel, then the plane
polarised light passes
completely through the
analyser

Malu’s Law –
2
I =I 0 cos θ
2 2 2
A = ( A o ) cos θ

SUPERPOSITION

8.1 Stationary waves

Principle of superposition of waves

49
When two identical waves interfere at a point, the total displacement of the resultant wave
at that point is given by the sum of the displacements that each individual wave would have
caused at that point.

Moving Left Moving Right Resultant

A stationary wave is set up by the

superposition of two progressive waves
of same type, amplitude and frequency,
travelling in opposite directions.
In a stationary wave, certain points

50
always remain at rest called nodes. The points between two successive nodes vibrate with
maximum amplitude, and are called anti-nodes.

Anti-node-Node: ½ λ Node-Node: ½ λ Node-Anti-node: ¼ λ

As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers of
minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form

Q) How are stationary waves formed?

A) Waves from a coherent source travel and are reflected from each other’s end. The
incident and reflected waves overlap to from a stationary wave of same frequency and
wavelength.

8.2 Diffraction

Diffraction

The spreading of waves as they pass through a gap or the edge of a barrier. The effect of
diffraction is greatest if the size of the gap is similar to the wavelength.

51
As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the
gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer spread out

8.3 Interference

Interference of waves

It is the effect observed when 2 waves overlap each other; if the waves interference is in
phase, then the interference is called constructive, if they overlap in anti-phase, it is called
destructive

52
Coherent source

If the phase difference between 2 waves remains constant at a given point, then waves are
said to be coherent

Incoherent source

If the phase difference between 2 waves changes constantly at a given point, then the 2
waves are said to be incoherent

Demonstrating Two Source Interference

Water Waves

 Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks

 The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from two point
sources eg. dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond

 The two waves

interfere causing
areas of
constructive and
destructive
interference

 The lines of
maximum
displacement
occur when all the
peaks and troughs
line up with those
on another wave

Sound Waves

 Two source interference for sound

waves looks very similar to water
waves
 Sound waves are longitudinal
waves so are made up of
compressions and rarefactions

53
  Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two rarefactions line up
and the sound appears louder
 Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a rarefaction and
vice versa. The sound is quieter
 This is the technology used in noise-cancelling headphones

Light Waves

 For light rays, such

as a laser light
through two slits, an
interference pattern
forms on the screen
 Constructive
interference is
shown as bright
fringes on the
screen. The highest
intensity is in the
middle
 Destructive
interference is
shown as the dark
fringes on the
screen. These have zero intensity

For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave must be:

Coherent (constant phase difference)

Monochromatic (single wavelength)4 recall and use λ = ax /D for double-slit interference

using light

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

54
In this experiment, monochromatic light is passed through two narrow slits, to produce
interference pattern on a screen, As the light waves pass through the slit, they are
diffracted, they produce a pattern of bright and dark fringes.

At point P on the screen light waves from each slit travels the same distance, and therefore
the path difference is zero, resulting in the constructive interference. This point is called the
central maxima, this is the brightest point.

At point O, the path difference between S1O and S2O is ½ λ, producing destructive
interference

8.4 The diffraction grating

55
It contains a large number of slits in a small space. (e.g. 3000 lines/mm). When a beam of
ligh is passed through the diffraction grating, they are diffracted from each slit and they
form different orders of brightness due to interference between each wave.

These orders of brightness are orders of maxima.

The angle between the 1st order maxima with the central maxima is smaller than 2nd order
maxima with central maxima

Wavelength of diffracted light is found by

ⅆ sin θ=nλ d – line separation of grating n – order of maxima

Q) Monochromatic light incident normally on a grating with 7x10⁵ lines/meter. The second
order maxima is observed at 40° with the central maxima. Find the wavelength of the
incident light

A) λ = dsinθ / n
d = 1 / 7x10⁵ n=2
λ = 4.7x10⁻⁷m

ELECTRICITY

56
9.1 Electric current

Current (I): Electric current is the flow of charge carriers and is measured in units of
amperes (A) or amps
I (A)

Ampere (A): The amount of current in a circuit when one coulomb charge flows between
two points per second

Quantised Charge
Each charged particle can carry only the charge of an electron or multiples of it, Therefore
charge on a particle is always a discrete value and is said to be quantised

Charge (Q): Property of a mass which allows it to experience force in an electric field
unit: Coulomb (C)
1e = -1.6×10⁻¹⁹C
1p = +1.6×10⁻¹⁹C
1 C = 1/1.6×10⁻¹⁹ Electrons

Coulomb (C): The amount of electrical charge passing between two points in a circuit. When
a constant current of one ampere flows between two points in every second, Q = It
Q (Charge) = I (current) × t (time) Q (C, Coulombs)

Current in a material
Volume of a wire = A × L m³
Charge carrier density = n (m⁻³)
Total charge carrier = n × AL electrons
Charge of one electron = e electrons
Total charge Q = nAL × e
I = Q/t = nAe × L/t
v = L/t (speed) drift speed
I = nAev

9.2 Potential difference and Power

57
Potential Difference (V): Amount of energy transferred by one coulomb of charge as it
passes between two points in a circuit
V = E/Q

Power
Rate of energy.
V is the work done per unit charge and I is rate of flow of charge, so power = current ×
voltage
P = IV
V = IR
P = I²R P = V²/R
If the resistance is constant, if the current or voltage doubles the power will be four times
greater

9.3 Resistance and Resistivity

Resistance (Ω): The ratio of p.d. across a conductor to the current flowing through the
conductor

58
Ohm:
The current of one ampere flowing through a conductor when the p.d. across it is
one volt.

Filament lamp
As the temperature of the filament in the lamp increases, the atoms vibrate more often, this
increases the rate of collision with electrons and decrease the rate of flow of charge

Ohm’s Law: The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the p.d.
across the conductor provided the temperature is constant

Resistivity (ρ)
The resistance R of a material is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to it’s cross-sectional area
R α L/A
R = ρ × L/A
resistivity (ρ) = constant unit: Ωm

LDR
Light-dependent resistor is a non-ohmic conductor meaning that it does not
follow ohm’s law
As the light intensity increases, the resistance of an LDR decreases

Thermistor
Thermistor is a non-ohmic conductor, as the temperature increases the
resistance of a thermistor decreases
As the temperature of thermistor increases the number of charge carriers also increase. This
increase in charge carrier number results in decrease of resistance

Semiconductor
Diode is a semi-conducting device; it allows the current to flow along the direction
of the arrow (forward bias). However, from the opposite direction current cannot pass
through (reverse bias). Along the forward bias – very low resistance
Along the reverse bias – very high resistance

59
60
D.C. CIRCUITS

61
10.1 Practical Circuits

 Switch: Turn the circuit on (closed), or off (open)

 Fixed resistor: A resistor limits the flow of current. A fixed resistor has a resistance it
cannot change
 Variable resistor: A resistor with a slider that can be used to change its resistance.
Used often in dimmer switches and volume controls
 Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. As its
temperature increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
 Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of an LDR depends on the light
intensity. As the light intensity increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
 Diode: A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. They are used to convert
AC to DC current
 Light-emitting diode (LED): This is equivalent to a diode and emits light when a
current passes through it. These are used for aviation lighting and displays (TVs, road
signs)
 Ammeter: Used to measure the current in a circuit. Connected in series with other
component
 Voltmeter: Use to measure the potential difference of an electrical component.
Connected in parallel with component

Electromotive Force: It is the amount of energy transferred to one coulomb of charge

around the circuit. Energy converted from other forms to electrical energy

E.M.F. vs P.D.
The difference between potential difference and e.m.f is the type of energy transfer per unit
charge. When charge passes through a resistor, for example, its electrical energy is
converted to heat in the resistor

The resistor therefore has a potential difference across it

Potential difference describes the loss of energy from charges; ie. when electrical energy is
transferred to other forms of energy in a component

e.m.f. describes the transfer of energy from the power supply to electrical charges within
the circuit

Internal Resistance (r)

Any source of e.m.f. has its own internal resistance that uses some amount of electrical
energy. Delivered by the source. The resistance within a power source is known as internal
resistance (r). The internal resistance causes a voltage drop within the cell, reducing

62
efficiency. The dropped voltage is called lost volt, and the p.d. across the terminal of the cell
is called terminal p.d.

ε = lost p.d. + terminal p.d.

ε = Ip + V
V = -Ir + ε E = I(R+r)
When the current I through the power source is 0 (in case of an open circuit), the terminal
p.d. will be equal to the e.m.f.. Alternatively, if internal resistance is negligible V = ε

Power in a circuit with internal resistance

PT = Pr + Pr EI = I²R + I²r

63
10.2 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s 1st Law

Conservation of charge
The sum of current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the sum of current leaving the
same junction

Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law

The sum of e.m.f. around any loop in a circuit is equal to the potential drop around the same
loop

Combined Resistance

Parallel

This means the combined resistance decreases and is less than the resistance of any of the
individual components

For example, if two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the
combined resistance will halve

Series

When two or more components are connected in series, the combined resistance of the
components is equal to the sum of individual resistances

64
Kirchhoff’s Second Law Worked Example

For the circuit below, state the readings of the voltmeters V1, V2 and V3.

All the lamps and resistors have the same resistance.

65
10.3 Potential Dividers

Potential Divider
A potential divider consists of two resistors connected in series with a power supply. The
current through each resistor remains same and the p.d. across each resistor is divided as
required

V1 = E/(R1 +R2) × R1 V2 = E/(R1+R2) × R2

In this circuit the brightness of the lamp depends on the temperature of the thermistor as
its resistance changes

66
Galvanometer

A galvanometer is made from a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core that rotates inside
a magnetic field

 The arrow represents a needle which deflects depending on the amount of current
passing through

o When the arrow is facing directly upwards, there is no current

o This is called null deflection

 Ohm’s law tells us that the current through a conductor (wire) is directly
proportional to the potential difference through it i.e. no p.d means no current flows
through the galvanometer

 A galvanometer has p.d of zero when the potential on one side equals the potential
on the other side

 This is at the position at which it is connected on the wire (which varies with the
sliding contact) gives a p.d equal to the EMF of the cell connected to the
galvanometer

 The cell should be connected such that its potential opposes the potential on the
wire i.e. the positive terminal of the power supply faces the positive terminal of the
cell:

When the slidA sliding contact moves along the potentiometer wire, you add or
remove resistance from/to the external circuit. This changes the potential drop
across X and Y

 Location of the sliding point is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. This is
until the potential difference equals E2

 The direction of the two e.m.fs oppose each other and there is no current

Potentiometer
It is a variable potential divider that can be used to divide the potential across the
length of a high resistance wire. The sliding contact is placed at different points
alon the wire to change the reistance of the circuit, that also changes the current. The
position of voltmeter across different parts of the wire gives different readings. The p.d.
across any portion of the wire is proportional to fraction of the length of wire to the entire
liength of wire, provided current remains constant.

67
Measuring e.m.f. using potentiometer

A current flows due to E1 while another

current flows due to E2. As the currents
are in opposite directions there is a net
flow of current. When E2 is greater the
galvanometer deflects towards the left.
When E1 is greater the galvonometer
deflects towards the right. As the sliding
contact is adjusted at one point p.d.
across AC is the same for both E1 and E2
so the deflection of the galvanometer is
0. The no current flows through the
lower circuit. The p.d. across AC is then
equal to the emf of E2. The driver cell has an e.m.f. E1 and a sample cell e.m.f. E2. The
positive terminals of E1 and E2 are connected at the same point A and sliding contact is
moved along the wirea AB. The point at which
the galvanometer gives 0 deflection (null deflection), the p.d. across that part of the wire is
equal to E2

68
Variable Resistance Components

 Variable and sensory resistors are used in potential dividers to vary the output
voltage

 This could cause an external component to switch on or off e.g. a heater switching
off automatically when its surroundings are at room temperature

 Sensory resistors used are Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) and thermistors

69
LDR and thermistor in a potential divider circuit with a fixed resistor R

 The voltmeter in both circuits is measuring Vout

 Recall that the resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity

o The higher the light intensity, the lower the resistance and vice versa

 An LDR circuit is often used for street and security lights

 The resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature

o The hotter the thermistor, the lower the resistance and vice versa

 A thermistor circuit is used in fire alarms, ovens and digital thermometers

 From Ohm’s law V = IR, the potential difference Vout from a resistor in a potential
divider circuit is proportional to its resistance

o If an LDR or thermistor's resistance decreases, the potential difference

through it also decreases

o If an LDR or thermistor's resistance increases, the potential difference

through it also increases

 Since the total p.d of the components must be equal to Vin, if the p.d of the sensory
resistor decreases then the p.d of the other resistor in the circuit must increase and
vice versa

70
PARTICLE PHYSICS

11.1 Atoms, nuclei and radiation

Rutherford Scattering

In this experiment, alpha particles were fired at a thin gold sheet placed in a vacuum
chamber. The walls of the chamber were coated with a chemical that produced flashes of
light as alpha particles hit the screen

From the experiment it was observed that

i) Most of the particles went straight through the gold atom

ii) Some of the alpha particles deviated by a small angle as it passed through the
atom
iii) Very few alpha particles bounced back from the gold atom

Based on the observations it can be concluded that

i) Most of the atom is empty space

ii) The nucleus of the atom is positively charged
iii) The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus

The nucleus is much smaller compared to the size of the atom

Factors affecting the amount of deflection of α particles

71
1) Distance between α and nucleus, closer the α particle nucleus, more will be the deflection
2) Speed of the α particles, faster the α particle moves, lesser will be the deflection

Atomic model according to Rutherford

72
Nucleon numbers and Proton numbers

Nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. The proton
number is just the number of protons in the atom

Isotopes

When an element decays, they can lose mass by losing their neutrons. If an element loses its
neutrons but not its protons, that means it is now an isotope of its original element. Same
element different mass

73
Conservation of Nucleon number and charge

We can see that the total number of protons and neutrons stay the same along the charge

The total number of protons, neutrons, and charge remains unchanged

Types of Decay

8 understand that an antiparticle has the same mass but opposite charge to the
corresponding particle, and that a positron is the antiparticle of an electron

Radiation

Ionizing radiation are released from unstable nuclei of an atom. The nucleus might become
unstable due to difference in electrostatic repulsive force inside nucleus and the nuclear
force holding the nucleus.

Depending on the type of decay, ionizing radiation are categorized as 3 types.

Alpha decay (α)

74
In alpha decay, 2 protons and 2 neutrons are emitted from a unstable nucleus. They are also

represented as a Helium nucleus

Beta decay (β)

i) Beta minus (β⁻)

In beta minus decay, a neutron splits into a proton and an electron. The electron from the
neutron is emitted as an β⁻ particle. An (electron) antineutrino is also produced

ii) Beta plus (β⁺)

In beta plus decay, protons splits into a neutron and a positron , The positron is released as
a β⁺ particle, and the neutron stays in the nucleus. An (electron) neutrino is also produced

Gamma (Υ)

75
A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation, is a penetrating form of electromagnetic
radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest
wavelength electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of X-rays

10 understand that α-particles have discrete energies but that β-particles have a
continuous range of energies because (anti)neutrinos are emitted in β-decay

Unified Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom is so small that we use the unified atomic mass (u) to represent the
mass of atoms. The lightest element Hydrogen consists of 1 proton. Its mass is 1u. An
element with 4 nucleon number such as Helium would weigh 4u. Electrons have a mass of
1u/1800
1u = 1.660 x 10−27 kg

11.2 Fundamental Particles

76
Quarks

 Quarks are fundamental particles that make up other subatomic particles such
as protons and neutrons

 Protons and neutrons are in a category of particles called hadrons

o Hadrons are defined as any particle made up of quarks

 Fundamental means that

quarks are not made up of any
other particles. Another
example is electrons

 Quarks have never been

observed on their own, they’re
either in pairs or groups of
three

 There are six flavours (types) of quarks that exist:

The charge of a hadron is determined by the sum of the charges of its quarks
Each flavour of quark has a certain relative charge:

Each quark has its respective anti-quark, with opposite charges

77
Protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles, they are made of these quarks.
Proton = uud +⅔e + ⅔e - ⅓e = +1e
Neutron = udd - ⅓e + - ⅓e + ⅔e = 0e

Hadrons

Hadrons are a group of fundamental particles. Hadrons are made up of quarks. Hadrons also
have 2 groups, Baryons and Mesons. Baryons are particles that are made of 3 quarks such
as protons and neutrons, Mesons are made of one quark and one anti-quark.

β– and β+ decay = DDU -> UUD

78
Leptons

Leptons are a group of fundamental (elementary) particles. This means they are not made
up of any other particles (no quarks). There are six leptons altogether

The muon and tau particle are very similar to the electron but with slightly larger mass.
Electrons, muon and tau particles all have a charge of -1e and a ma ss of 0.0005u.
There are three flavours (types) of neutrinos (electron, muon, tau). Neutrinos are the most
abundant leptons in the universe. They have no charge and negligible mass (almost 0).
Leptons interact with the weak interaction, electromagnetic and gravitational forces.
However, they do not interact with the strong force. Although quarks are fundamental
particles too, they are not classed as leptons. Leptons do not interact with the strong force,
whilst quarks do

79