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strata / stratum
Strata is the plural form of stratum, meaning “a layer of material.”
 The land’s strata are exposed by erosion.
 Each stratum is clearly visible in the cliff.

style
A dictionary definition of style is “the way in which something is said
or done, as distinguished from its substance.” Writers’ styles are deter-
mined by the way writers think and transfer their thoughts to paper —
the way they use words, sentences, images, figures of speech, and so on.
A writer’s style is the way his or her language functions in particu-
lar situations. For example, an e-mail to a friend would be relaxed,
even chatty, in tone, whereas a job application letter would be more re-
strained and formal. Obviously, the style appropriate to one situation
would not be appropriate to the other. In both situations, the audience,
the purpose, and the context determine the manner or style the writer
adopts. Beyond an individual’s personal style, various kinds of writing
have distinct stylistic traits, such as technical writing style.
Standard English can be divided into two broad categories of style —
formal and informal — according to how it functions in certain situa-
tions. Understanding the distinction between formal and informal writing
styles helps writers use the appropriate style. We must recognize, how-
ever, that no clear-cut line divides the two categories and that some writ-
ing may call for a combination of the two. See also English, varieties of.

Formal Writing Style

A formal writing style can perhaps best be defined by pointing to cer-
tain material that is clearly formal, such as scholarly and scientific ar-
ticles in professional journals, lectures read at meetings of professional
societies, and legal documents. Material written in a formal style is usu- S
ally the work of a specialist writing to other specialists or writing that
embodies laws or regulations. As a result, the vocabulary is specialized
and precise. The writer’s tone is impersonal and objective because the
subject matter looms larger in the writing than does the author’s per-
sonality. (See point of view.) A formal writing style does not use contrac-
tions, slang, or dialect. Because the material generally examines com-
plex ideas, the sentence construction may be elaborate.
Formal writing need not be dull and lifeless. By using such tech-
niques as the active voice whenever possible, sentence variety, and
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subordination, a writer can make formal writing lively and interesting,

especially if the subject matter is inherently interesting to readers. In the
following example, a physicist uses a concept that is taken for granted
(distance) to show how definitions are important in science.

 Distance is such a basic concept in our understanding of the world

that it is easy to underestimate the depth of its subtlety. With the
surprising effects that special and general relativity have had on
our notions of space and time, and the new features arising from
string theory, we are led to be a bit more careful even in our defi-
nition of distance. The most meaningful definitions in physics are
those that are operational — that is, definitions that provide a
means, at least in principle, for measuring whatever is being de-
fined. After all, no matter how abstract a concept is, having an
operational definition allows us to boil down its meaning to an
experimental procedure for measuring its value.
— Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden
Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory

Whether you should use a formal style in a particular instance depends

on your readers and purpose. When writers attempt to force a formal
style when it should not be used, their writing is likely to fall victim to
affectation, awkwardness, and gobbledygook.

Informal Writing Style

An informal writing style is a relaxed and colloquial way of writing
standard English. It is the style found in most personal e-mail and in
some business correspondence, nonfiction books of general interest, and
mass-circulation magazines. There is less distance between the writer
and the reader because the tone is more personal than in a formal writ-
ing style. Consider the following passage, written in an informal style,
from a nonfiction book on statistics.

S  After a few months of reading risk statistics, I had a curious expe-

rience one morning, an epiphany of sorts. At the time, however, I
felt more like Alice in Wonderland after taking a sip of the “Drink
Me” potion. When I opened my eyes in bed and began to con-
template my day, I began to see it not in terms of what I had to
accomplish but in terms of the risks that I would encounter. The
world suddenly started looking different.
— John F. Ross, The Polar Bear Strategy:
Reflections on Risk in Modern Life
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As the example illustrates, the vocabulary of an informal writing style is

made up of generally familiar rather than unfamiliar words and expres-
sions, although slang and dialect are usually avoided. An informal style
approximates the cadence and structure of spoken English while con-
forming to the grammatical conventions of written English.
Writers who consciously attempt to create a distinctive style usually
defeat their purpose. Attempting to impress readers with a flashy writ-
ing style can lead to affectation; attempting to impress them with scien-
tific objectivity can produce a style that is dull and lifeless. Technical
writing need be neither affected nor dull. It can and should be simple,
clear, direct, even interesting — the key is to master basic writing skills
and always to keep your readers in mind. What will be both informa-
tive and interesting to your readers? When that question is uppermost
in your mind as you apply the steps of the writing process, you will
achieve an interesting and informative writing style. See “Five Steps to
Successful Writing.”

WRITER’S CHECKLIST Developing an Effective Style

 Use the active voice—not exclusively but as much as possible without

becoming awkward or illogical.
 Use parallel structure whenever a sentence or list presents two or
more thoughts of equal importance.
 Vary structures to avoid a monotonous style.
 Avoid stating positive thoughts in negative terms (write “40 percent
responded” instead of “60 percent failed to respond”). See also posi-
tive writing and ethics in writing.
 Concentrate on achieving the proper balance between emphasis and
subordination.

WEB LINK Style Guides

S
Style guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated
Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, provide specific and some-
times varied advice for handling issues of usage, style, and formats for
citations, correspondence, and documents. For a selected list of such
style guides, see bedfordstmartins.com/alredtech and select Links for
Handbook Entries.