11

Introduction
This Module seeks to facilitate the learning in defining/describing
the high school learners along physical, cognitive, socio-emotional
development. There are also activities provided for you in order to
deepen and strengthen your knowledge about the topic. You need to
answer them with sincerity and great focus so that you will be equipped
with things that relate to the development of the adolescent learners.
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As you journey on this lesson, you are expected to:

Cite implications of the physical, cognitive

and socio-emotional developments that
happen to high school learners

1. Identify and explain the factors that affect physical development

of high school learners
2. Explain the consequences of the adolescents’ cognitive
development on their behavior
3. Identify and explain causes and solutions to socio-emotional
problems of teenagers such as gender and identity, autonomy
and attachment, peer group, friendships, dating, juvenile
delinquency, depression and suicide

Are you ready for today’s lesson? This time, you are
tasked to read the texts below and be able to comprehend it
well.
 13

Defining adolescence

Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-

emotional changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty.
The specific ages for this period vary from person-to-person but (1) early adolescence
characterized by puberty may come at the ages of 11 and 12 (2) middle adolescence may
meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16, and (3) late adolescence marks the
transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20. There are factors which contribute to early puberty
and delayed puberty. These factors include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental
influence.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHSCHOOL LEARNERS

Puberty changes

Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body size and
weight. Hormone flooding during adolescence causes an acceleration known as growth
spurts. Growth spurts include a change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk
length). Spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth. In girls, the growth
spurts generally begin at age 10 reaching its peak at age 11 and-a-half, while slow continual
growth occurs for several more years. For boys, growth spurts begin at age 12 reaching a
peak at age 14 and declining at age 15 and a half, while slow continual growth continues on
for several more years. Among girls, 98% of adult height is generally reached at age 16, while
boys do so at age 17. Growth in height is conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The
muscles also grow in terms of size and strength. Similar growth spurts occur for weight,
muscle size, head and face maturation, and the reproductive organs. All muscular and
skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth spurts during adolescence.

Factors affecting development

The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones are

powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. Hormonal
changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the entire process of sexual
maturation. The process entails
(i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the base of
the brain near the geometric center of the head
(ii) Gonads which are the ovaries for the female and the testis for the male are
then stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own
hormones (ii) this stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the
male sex organ and of estrogen in the female ovary.

In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by

(i) spermache enlargement of the testis gland that produces sperm in the
scrotum, growth of the penis male organ for copulation
(ii) capacity for ejaculation of male sperms
(iii) voice change, facial hair development or beard growth, and continuing
growth of pubic hair.

Occurring late in puberty, the lowering of the voice caused by enlargement

of the larynx and double lengthening of the vocal cords is viewed to be the most
obvious aspect of adolescent development
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In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, appearance

of pubic hair, widening of the hips, and menarche or first menstruation.

The elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of puberty in girls,
accompanied by growth of the uterus and vagina. Generally, girls achieve menarche
beginning age 11 until age 13. There are ethnic differences such as African American and
European American girls exhibiting secondary sex activities as early as 8 and 9 years;
menarche as early as 11 and 12 years, respectively.

In contrast with menarche, spermarche signals the first sign of puberty and sexual
maturity in boys. The need to discharge semen-mixed with a sticky fluid produced by the
prostate gland -occurs periodically. Discharge of semen occurs during sleep caused by sexual
dreams. It may also occur during conscious manipulation of the male sexual organ known as
masturbation. Religion strictly prohibits masturbation that is coupled with sexual fantasies, but
science liberally regards masturbation as a normal phenomenon unless it becomes a habitual
aberration that may affect confidence in heterosexual (boy-and-girl) relationship.

The secular trend

The secular trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation during this
century. In the 1800s, girls in industrial societies had their first menstrual period at age 15-17,
and age later in repressed societies. Today boys reach their maximum height at age 18-20
and 13- 14 for girls, but adult height 100 years ago was at 23-25 for boys and 19-20 for girls.
The secular trend is ascribed to varied factors, such as: interaction of genetic and
environmental influences, improved health care and living conditions, and control of infectious
diseases. Better nutrition is a major factor since this provides more protein and calories for
humans from conception upwards. Observably, the secular trend in industrial countries
appears to be levelling off while the experience of secular trends is just starting in peasant
economies of the world.

Sexual identity

Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation with sexual

fantasies and realities of incorporating sexuality with one's identity quoted by Santrack (2005)
from one's identity (Christopher, 2001). Adolescents are concerned about their body image
sexual attractiveness how to do sex and the future of their sexual lives. Most adolescents
manage to develop a mature sexual identity but a number go through it with much confusion.

How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?

An adolescent's sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests, and

styles of behavior (Bugwell & Rosenthal, 1996). Some adolescents are very anxious about
sex and sexually active. Others are only a bit anxious about sex and are sexually inactive.
Sexual orientation is a person's tendency to be attracted to people of the same sex
(homosexual orientations), of the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation) or of both sexes
(bisexual orientation) Why does an adolescent develop a specific sexual orientation is a
matter of great debate. It may boil down to the same issue of nature vs. nurture. In terms of
sexual identity, adolescence is the period when most gay/lesbian and transgenders begin to
recognize and make sense of their feelings.
 15

Development analyst Froiden proposed a model for the development of homosexual

identity:
(i) sensitization marked by the child's becoming aware of same sex attractions.
(ii) identity confusion when the youth is overwhelmed with feelings of inner
turmoil regarding sexual orientation
(iii) identity assumption when adolescents come out of the family and assumes
a self-definition as gay, lesbian or bisexual, and
(iv) commitment when the young adult adopts a sexual identity as a lifestyle.

Coming to terms with a positive LGBT (lésbian, gay, bisexual and transgender)
identity is usually difficult for variety of reasons, including family, race and religious cultures.
Risks to the homosexual adolescent are real mid a heteronormative environment and LGBTs
may suffer ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.

Self-esteem

A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescence is self-esteem.

Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity.
Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire across all genders and ages
to maintain, protect and enhance self-esteem. There is no significant drop in self-esteem over
the period of adolescence. Baseline self-esteem is stable across adolescence, but a
barometric (unstable) self-esteem may fluctuate rapidly to cause severe distress and anxiety.
Girls enjoy self-esteem through supportive relationship with friends or others who can provide
social and moral support. In contrast, boys are more prone to assert independence in defining
their relationships, deriving self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence others. The
lack of romantic competence failure to meet the affection of the opposite sex-can be a major
contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. In a Meyer study, the end of a romantic
relationship can affect both boys and girls, but girls are twice as likely to experience
depression, while boys are three to four times more likely to commit suicide.

Implications for child care, education and parenting

To meet the physical development of adolescent children, parents need to be aware

of manifestations of behavioral patterns that require closer communication, guidance and
support. The teen is especially addictive to modern gadgets for music listening, video games,
mobile phone communication, and social media posting. These activities cause shorter
sleeping time that may contribute to increased levels of daytime drowsiness, sleeping
problems and depression. In school, teachers need to be aware of the possible drop in self-
esteem among adolescent learners. The teacher's support is crucial to protect adolescent
learners against severe distress and anxiety over their school work and social relationships.

Adolescents and nutrition

It is necessary for adolescents to have sufficient amounts of vitamins: B12, calcium,

zinc, iron, riboflavin, and Vitamin D. The vegetarian fad can be disastrous to adolescents who
need vitamins, mineral and protein which purely vegetable diets cannot provide. Vegetables
are good but these should be balanced with food intake that form high quality nutrition
including protein sources in milk, dairy products and eggs. Poor eating habit is manifested by
often skipping meals, frequent taking of snack foods (hamburger, fries, pizza, soft drinks,
etc.) at fast-food eateries.
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Body image and the adolescent

Consciousness about body image is strong during the adolescent period. It is

important that adolescents feel confident about how they look, but the physical features of
the human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which
must be respected. However, there is more to body image than physical looks and these
concern good habits in relation to:
• cleanliness and grooming,
• proper wearing of clothes according to current styles,
• erect body posture,
• eye contact while communicating, and
• decorum (good form and confidence) and decency.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHSCHOOL LEARNERS

Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. At this stage of
development, there is a decrease in egocentric thoughts, while the individual's thinking
takes more of an abstract form. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider
perspective. Behavioral studies also show the development of executive functions
comprised by cognitive functions that enable the control and coordination of thoughts
and behavior. Adolescence is therefore a period of human development that has great
influence on the individual's future life through character and personality formation.
Similarly, remarkable as the physical changes during adolescence are changes
in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive
skills due to the brain's increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections
(technically known as corpus collosum) which join and coordinate the two hemispheres
of the brain. Another brain development is the process of correlated temporal and
parietal areas (technically known as myelination). This second development covers the
brain systems whose executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language
and planning. Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been
identified by neurological scientists and these are at age 12, age and age 18.5
coinciding with operational thinking processes for logical reasoning.
Accompanying brain changes in cognitive ability, the adolescent begins to
acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or general ideas involving numbers,
order, and cause-effect. All these changes propel the adolescent from the world of
sensible and concrete thoughts to the world of the possible and universal ideas (e.g.
general ideas about the good, true and beautiful).
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Piaget's Formal Operational Thinker

Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates how
the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/ her to go beyond the sensible and concrete
in order to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical and possible. More specifically, formal
operational thinking consists in:

a. Propositional thinking - making assertions outside visual evidence, and stating what
may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example, whether an unseen object
is red or green, big or small, flat or round).

b. Relativistic thinking - subjectively making an opinion on facts involving one's own bias,
prejudice of distortion of facts - which may be either right or wrong (for example, arguing
for or against the superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or black).

c. Real versus possible examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms of
situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in implementing a student project or a
school policy). "

For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking is the ability of
the adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of the effects of
several variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly. An application
of a situation which requires combinational analysis is the school laboratory experiment where
high school students test chemical elements singly and in combination, resulting in an
understanding of chemical changes.

A new capacity known as Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning emerges in the adolescent

reasoning from general facts/ situations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum
experiment is an example of deducing from variables and generating and recognizing a truth,
expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion from a hypothesis.

Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the capacity for formal
operational thinking, only experience and education will allow them to practice it. School math
and science activities such as performing Physics-type problems (balance scales, pendulums,
projections of images and shadows, etc.) certainly help in actualizing formal operational thinking.

Outside formal operational thinking through mathematical and science studies, the
adolescent enters into a new capability which makes him a problem-solving thinker. This
involves identifying problems and seeking new and creative solutions for them. The problem-
finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and reorganize ideas and ask questions, even
defining totally new problems not previously seen.

The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought. Thus he/she is
able to bring what is logically "best" for everyday life, whether or not this may be the objectively
correct solution or response to a situation or problem.
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Siegler's Information Processing Skills

As in information-processing theories, Robert Siegler views the influence of the

environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but more of
a sequential acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem-solving. He observes
the quality of information the adolescent processes that influences him/her in facing tasks at
hand through strategies or rules.

In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance, weight, distance,
conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and other conflict balance problems. He examined the correct
and wrong answers to each of the problems, drawing out rule models in thinking and knowing.

Thereupon, adolescents may show:

a. speed in information processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and
acquired knowledge base a more efficient kind of thinking compared with that of
the child

b. complexity by way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities

beyond the here-and-now, and

c. increased volume of information processing coupled with longer memory span.

Metacognition

Among the cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition which is the ability to

identify one's own thinking processes and strategies inclusive of perception, memory,
understanding, application, analysis, assessment and innovation. The adolescent is able to
state "I know that" among the memory data stored in his mind; also, able to state “I know how"
referring to procedural processes that improves memory recall through the use of a mnemonic
device. The adolescent may also spend time reflecting about a material to be learned by
answering mentally such questions as what, why, where and how. All these are demonstrations
of higher order thinking skills during adolescence.

Another important development is the ability of the adolescent for information

processing. Information theorist Robert Siegler sees a sequential acquisition of specific
knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He observes the quality of information processes
that faces tasks at hand through strategies and rules. Rules relate to balance, weight, distance,
conflict weight, conflict distance and conflict balance problems. Thereupon the adolescent
shows (i) speed in information processing coupled with awareness and control (ii) complexity
by way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities beyond the here-and-now. (iii)
increased volume of information processing, coupled with longer memory span along many
areas or domains of knowledge. The adolescent thus transforms from being a novice to
becoming a near-expert.
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Overachievement
During adolescence, he/she can achieve very high academic grades, in spite
of not getting 1Q grades that are at the top 3 or 5 percent of the bell curve. The case
of overachievers is a reminder that the Intelligence Quotient test is not the only
determinant in school achievement. There are other factors such as motivation interest,
work habits, and personality development. Beyond statistical achievement in curricular
subjects (English, Math, Science, Araling Panlipunan, etc.) the overachieving
adolescent may demonstrate superior work habits, greater interest in school work,
more consistency in doing assignments, and more grade/ performance consciousness.
Overall, they show more responsibility, consciousness and planning compared with
"normal" achievers. Characteristics of overachievers are:
1. Positive self- value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism);
2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and teachers);
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to feelings of others);
4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make right
choices, initiates and leads activities);
5. Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to discover and
learn, interest in study values and varied fields of study);
6. Goal orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning, setting target,
prioritizing long-term goals over short-term rewards); and
7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed performance of organized
tasks).

Underachievement
The adolescent may perform below the standards set. Possible potentials do
not cope with the opportunity to learn and score in the top quarter of measured
academic ability. Grades are below measured aptitudes for academic achievement.
Underachievement may become more pronounced when high school class work
becomes more demanding. Withdrawn underachievers refer to those who have a
more pronounced tendency to be passive resulting in being submissive and docile.
They follow the path of no resistance, not reacting to given assignments and school
regulations. Generally quiet, they do not participate in class activities. Aggressive
underachievers are those who tend to be talkative, disruptive and rebellious.
 20

Behavior and adolescent cognitive growth

There are behavioral tendencies which may accompany cognitive growth
during adolescence. These are:
1. Egocentrism. This is the adolescents' tendency to think too much of
themselves, while being too sensitive to social acceptance of their appearance,
actions, feelings, ideas, etc. Egocentrist teens feel they are being watched like
an actor on stage; keep an imaginary audience who are strict critics of dress,
behavior or performance. One egocentric strain is exaggerated feeling of self-
importance which may lead to murky early boy-girl relationships, dangerous
escapades and adventures.

2. Idealism. This refers to imagining the far-fetched and less ideal situations at
home, in school, and in society. The teen may imagine a utopia or heaven on
earth leading to discouragement when social realities become harsh (e.g.
unexpected low grades, family discord, etc.).

3. Increased argumentativeness. Teens enjoy learning through the use of group

dynamics including role play, discussion, debate, and drama. Strict imposition
of the use of English in the campus has been the strategy by premiere schools
to develop argumentative students who later on transform into leaders in
politics, business and other top professional fields.

Implications to adolescent care, education and parenting

Parents and teachers must be able to recognize the cognitive development
paths among adolescents and create situations that will foster higher thinking skills
through:
a. Activities at home e.g. asking teenage children for suggestions on family
matters-- house physical arrangements, things to buy, places to go to for family
outing, etc.

b. Allowing more independence e.g. use of school allowances, choice on what to

wear, etc.

c. Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips, joint
internet research, etc., and

d. Develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet blogs.

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Developing occupational skills

Senior High School Grades 11 and 12 were designed to provide attention
to occupational skills that are absent even among college graduates. The
Department of Labor and Employment reports that there is mismatch between
academic preparation and job skills thus worsening the gap between
employable school graduates and potential jobs or employment. Theorist John
Holland has identified basic personality factors that match with attitude and
work preferences:
Realistic - This personality type prefers practical tasks, including those
requiring physical labor and motor coordination, and less of interpersonal
skills (e.g. carpentry, driving, etc.).
Investigative - This prefers tasks that are conceptual such as in the fields
of science and technology as chemists, scientists, technologists, etc.
Conventional - This prefers structured tasks that cater to the needs of
others, such as in office jobs and manual labor.
Enterprising - this prefers independence and innovation in business and
other enterprises that reflect autonomy and personal initiative.
Artistic - this prefers unstructured tasks that show ability for self-
expression such as from artists, musicians, and performers.
Adolescents may also show capability for multitasking, later on becoming
professionals such as doctors who are at the same time business
entrepreneurs. Early on adolescents may show abilities for gainful work, later
on becoming self-supporting in college, by entering the service sector as fast-
food employees, sales clerks, office messengers, and utility personnel. These
adolescent attitudes and abilities demonstrate:
• self-reliance working independently without stress;
• money management not spending money on luxuries, much less on
alcohol and drugs;
• social responsibility - cooperation and respect for others including
superiors;
• mature work orientation pride in work and quality of work;
• personal responsibility - assuming tasks independently and
competitively; and
• positive attitude to work -work is seen as a gainful and wholesome
activity and not a burden.
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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

During adolescence the teen develops social cognition in the context of family structure,
the school, the community, and media. He also manifests emotions which need to be regulated
for success in school as well as for his own emotional well-being. In the classroom, the teacher
has the mandate for creating a positive learning environment, while facilitating the students'
sound moral judgment. This module will describe the adolescent age trend in social behavior as
the student interacts with the School, the community and the larger social environment.

Human emotions

Generally, emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are manifested by
varied conscious or unconscious moods. A more accurate description is that it is a subjective
reaction to internal or external stimulus that involves physical change, action or appraisal. Thus,
the child reacts to inner hunger for food or comfort from surrounding environment. The unique
patterns of emotions are (i) event that is strong or important (ii) physiological changes in heart
pulse rate, brain activity, hormone levels and body temperature (iii) readiness for action often
described as "fight or flight" (iv) dependence of the emotion on how the stimulus is appraised or
interpreted. Biologists view that the part of the body which controls emotional reactions is the
autonomic nervous system connected to most of the glands and muscles in the body. The
system has two parts: the sympathetic part which excites or arouses and the parasympathetic
part which depresses body functions. These parts coordinate for arousal or slowing down amid
the challenges of life.

Positive and negative emotions

Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the individual to face a
situation in life or withdraw and run away from it. Positive emotions like interest and joy motivate
the individual to continue his/her behavior. On the other hand, negative emotions may cause
withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or dangerous. For Charles Darwin there are six
basic emotions, namely interest, joy/ happiness, sadness, anger, disgust and fear. Other
scientists expanded the list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion, jealousy and
anxiety.

Social emotions

Social emotions start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24 months) comprised
by such feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Observable emotions during
these years may not be accurate, but they can be a problem if not controlled. Even among early
learners, emotions affect learning, since learners pay more attention to things with emotional
significance. Emotions can also organize recall, such that learners tend to remember details of
emotionally strong experiences.

In time, emotional competence can be developed by the child and this means he/she
gains the ability to regulate emotions and understand the emotions of other people. Girls are
more skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely than boys to be anxious, and twice
as likely to be depressed. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to have both negative and
positive interactions with family and friends.
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Adolescents especially feel stress, usually from relationships with parents,

friends, sweethearts, also from pressure of school work. Thus, adolescents are
stereotyped as moody and negative, poor emotion control. Some studies argue
against stereotyping adolescents pointing at other emotions among teens such as
feeling bored, tired, sleepy, social discomfort like awkwardness and loneliness.
Generally, adolescents are seen to tend to emotions from social evaluation such as
feeling embarrassed when being looked at, also only fairly happy most of the time.
Other observations are that most adolescents are not moody, while some are
frequently angry, anxious or sad.
An important lesson for high school teachers is: you should not simply dismiss
emotional negativity as a normal phase, but should address the needs of
teenagers who are chronically unhappy or moody.

The adolescent and social media

On the present-day profusion of media, the adolescent has easy access to the
culture of various media and social media, inclusive of computers, cell phones, video
games, music iPods, FM radio and cable television. Almost all household have
television sets and about three- quarters of adolescents' homes have access to the
Internet. The total media exposure of the whole populace has greatly increased, even
as adolescents have the highest rates of use of video games, texting, social
networking through Facebook, and portable gadgets for music, mobile communication
and virtual reality games.
Findings indicate that electronic communication negatively affects
adolescents' social development. As face-to-face communication is replaced, social
skills are impaired sometimes leading to unsafe interaction with those who use social
media to exploit others financially or sexually. Girls are particularly vulnerable to online
socializing, while boys socializing in Internet cafes lower their academic work and
achievement. Socially insecure teens become victims rather than beneficiaries of the
modern gadgets’ innovations of the digital age.

Implication to adolescent care education and parenting

The overall implication is that emotional skills influence that adolescent
learner's success in class work. Learners who are able to regulate their emotions tend
to be happier, better liked and better able to pay attention and learn. Interventions by
the teacher and the school can reduce learner's emotional distress, while raising test
scores and grades. The teacher plays most important role in promoting positive
changes for the adolescent. As the teen is susceptible to peer pressure, the negative
influence of social media, drug use and addiction, early romantic sexual adventurism,
the teacher and the school can conduct interventions to assist the youths with focus
on risky and inappropriate behavior while promoting positive development among
adolescents.
 24

1. Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, MR. D., Borabo, HD. L. & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child
and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles, Lorimar Publishing Inc.,
Quezon City, Philippines.

2. Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, MR. D., Borabo, HD. L. & Lucido, P. I. (2010). The Child
and Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life
Stages, Lorimar Publishing Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.

Compiled by:

Jun P. Dalisay, LPT, RGC, Ph.D.-Psy

Maria Charmaine R. Gaa, LPT, MA-SPED
Jacquelyn Rose A. Fajilagutan, LPT, MAEd-GC
Charry F. Mayuga, LPT, MA-Psy
Professors/Instructors